VG

Two years after the publication of Darwin’s Origin, the first fossil bird was discovered: the Archaeopteryx (ancient wing) from the Solnhofen limestone deposits in Bavaria and preserved at the Natural History Museum in London.

The first specimen of Archaeopteryx, a 147-million-year-old dinosaur, has been discovered, with the skeleton, tail and teeth of a carnivorous saurian, and the feathers and brain of a bird

A bitter civil war in Mexico ends with the victory of the liberal forces led by Benito Juarez who nationalizes ecclesiastical assets.

Ludwigshafen, on the Rhine, Germany. BASF (Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik) is founded, the first major German chemical company, which, among other things, will specialize in the production of synthetic indigo. The second, Hoechst, will be founded the following year, 1862, and will also specialize

Bolivia. Charles Ledger, an Australian cinchona trader, persuades an Indian to sell him cinchona tree seeds (which contain a high content of quinine, an antimalarial substance). Great Britain is uninterested in purchasing them, as past experience has shown that the plant does not grow in

Tsar Alexander of Russia abolishes serfdom

Italy has 25 million people

Industrial oil extraction begins; 825 billion barrels will be extracted in 140 years (24 billion per year in the final years of the 20th century).

To everyone’s surprise, thick coral encrustations were found on a transatlantic telegraph cable lying at a depth of 3km, which was recovered for repairs; it was believed, in fact, that there was no life below 600m.

Charleston, South Carolina. Following the results of the presidential election, South Carolina declared itself an independent republic and considered its ties with the Union severed: it was secession. President Lincoln saw secession not only as the moral defeat of democracy, but also as the fragmentation

Modena. Via Vittorio Emanuele, recently inaugurated and with its covered canal, features a central section paved with cobblestones and a horse-drawn tram in the center, which can take you from the station to Piazza Sant’Agostino for 10 cents, passing through Via Farini and Via Emilia.

US Presidential Election: Republican Lincoln sweeps the entire North, winning 17 states and an absolute majority of seats: 180 electoral votes. His opponents won only 11 states (Breckinridge, 72 electoral votes), 3 states (Bell, 39 electoral votes), and 1 state (Douglas, 12 electoral votes). Counting

Marche and Umbria. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. In Marche, 134,977 voters cast their votes, with 133,765 voting in favor and 77,023 abstentions. In Umbria, 5,097,708 voters cast their votes, with 97,040 voting in favor.

Gaeta. The Savoy army, which had now replaced Garibaldi’s men, managed to overcome the last of the barriers placed by the Bourbons to slow down the advance to Gaeta. They faced a formidable fortress with 12,000 soldiers and 700 cannons and howitzers. They spent several

Capua. One of the three divisions into which the Bourbon army was divided surrendered after a night of bombardment. The second found refuge in the Papal States, where it was welcomed and disarmed by the French General Guyon. The third took refuge in Gaeta for

Japan. Shishi Terrorism. A group of anti-Western terrorists successfully attack and behead Regent Ii Naosuke, who had proposed a new treaty with the West.

The new Interior Minister, Luigi Carlo Farini, promoter of a federal state organization, on a visit to the South, raised alarm in Cavour, writing: “But, my friend, what kind of countries are these, Molise and Terra di Lavoro! What barbarism! Far from Italy! This is

Manfredo Fanti established the jurisdiction of military tribunals for all types of brigandage, and the execution order went into effect for anyone who incited insurrection or insulted the king or the flag. A decade of ruthless war on brigandage began.

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. In the Kingdom of Naples, 1,745,086 voters cast their votes, with 1,302,064 voting in favor and 479,914 abstentions. In Sicily, 500,000 voters cast their votes, with 432,053 voting in favor.

The end of the Second Opium War with China placed England at an advantage, and China at a disadvantage, from which it would not recover for well over a century. The English, having run out of silver to pay for Chinese goods, forced the Chinese

Beijing’s Summer Palace is destroyed. British troops occupy Beijing, sack it, and then burn the Yuanmingyuan, the fabulous summer palace built by the Manchu emperors in the 18th century. Shortly thereafter, the Qing Dynasty surrendered to Anglo-French forces, ending the Second Opium War and China’s

Macerone Pass, above Isernia. The Piedmontese army, having just entered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, is attacked by 2,000 Bourbon regulars and approximately 4,000 peasants. The Savoyards resist the assault, await reinforcements, and counterattack, encircling the enemy, who surrenders.

China. The Anglo-French expeditionary forces attack the Summer Palace of Emperor Kangxi: the Yuan Ming Yuan, which concentrates the pinnacle of all the splendors of Chinese civilization, in over two hundred buildings and gardens.

Garibaldi decisively defeats the Bourbons at the Volturno River. The victory, however, costs 1,600 dead and wounded, compared to 1,200 Bourbon troops, a testament to how difficult it was. The Volturno, the Thermopylae of Italy, represents the highest peak and also the beginning of the

Volturno. Late afternoon. The Neapolitans abandon their attack and return to Capua. The troops of the unfortunate Ruiz, however, disband and attack the Royal Palace of Caserta, sacking it. Garibaldi intervenes personally with the troops he finds available, including several hundred sharpshooters who have just

Volturno. Early afternoon. The Swiss Papal General von Mechel and his 3,000 mercenaries continue to fight successfully against Bixio’s troops at Ponti della Valle, awaiting Ruiz’s outflanking. Ruiz is blocked at Castelmorrone by a small group of Garibaldi’s men on a half-collapsed fortress. He relentlessly

Volturno. At dawn. The Bourbon blue columns emerging from Capua attack Garibaldi’s right wing. The assault is well-planned. Garibaldi intervenes immediately to prevent the worst, calling in the 2,500 men of Turr’s reserve and managing to stabilize the front. The front on his right, however,

Volturno. Early morning. Garibaldi finds himself with more men than he’d ever had before: 20,000 with several cannons. Many are volunteers from the north, while many Sicilians consider their mission complete once they’ve passed the Strait of Messina. Finally, the conscription in the rest of

China. Prince Seng, the ferocious Mongol leader of the Chinese imperial army, has British diplomats captured and imprisoned. The prisoners are treated inhumanely, bound so tightly that their limbs become gangrenous, and they are eaten alive by worms. The description of these tortures will provoke

Papal Ancona surrenders to the Piedmontese army.

Castelfidardo. The surviving papal troops and their allies, taking refuge in the sanctuary of Loreto, surrender: 3,000 men with 11 cannons. Among them was De Pimodan, seriously wounded, but not Lamocriciere, who fled toward Ancona, leaving behind decorations and personal belongings.

Castelfidardo. Decisive battle between Piedmontese and Papal troops. Papal commander Lamoriciere, famous for his battles in Algeria and against the democratic extremists of 1548, reaches Castelfidardo with 5,000 men and 12 cannons, when he runs into Cialdini’s column with 14,000 men and 24 cannons. The

In the first week of the Piedmontese military campaign in the Papal States, Città di Castello surrendered almost without resistance, and in Perugia one sixth of the entire papal army surrendered without a fight.

Cavour’s military campaign through the Marches and Umbria to reach Garibaldi who was ascending the peninsula from the south towards Rome.

Cialdini acted quickly and decisively, entering the Papal States from Romagna and Umbria and immediately attacking enemy strongholds. It was striking that in the Piedmontese camp, even among Catholics, there were no qualms about fighting against the Papal State. A Piedmontese Catholic commander, Della Rocca,

Cavour devised a lightning military operation to capitalize on Garibaldi’s expedition. He attacked the Papal States (something unthinkable just a few weeks earlier!), keeping well clear of Lazio and Rome, protected by French troops, and then advanced on Naples, where Garibaldi was stationed. Manfredo Fanti

Naples. Garibaldi’s arrival is paradoxical amidst the general chaos of power in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. No one knows who commands what. The general arrives virtually alone, without an escort, in the kingdom’s capital. To ensure the train he is arriving on arrives

Garibaldi enters Naples triumphantly

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy witnesses the death of his favorite brother Nikolai, from tuberculosis (his other brother Dmitrii had died of the same disease 4 years earlier).

Naples. King Francis II leaves the city to escape the hostility he senses. He goes first to Gaeta and then to the fortress of Capua. He will instigate a loyalist uprising that will lead to the rise of banditry, bloodily suppressed by the Carabinieri over

Calabria, Basilicata, Campania: the army of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies is in complete disarray. The army practically ceases to exist, and thousands desert, wandering through the mountains to return home. The coastal forts surrender without being attacked. Cavour’s emissaries are undoubtedly active at

In Milazzo, the Bourbon commander Bosco surrenders. Of the Sicilian cities, only Messina remains in Neapolitan hands. But fearful of a popular uprising, the soldiers retreat to the fortress of Messina, and Clary, the Bourbon commander of Messina, signs the surrender.

Melito, Calabria, south of Reggio Calabria. Garibaldi, with just over 3,000 men, faces 16,000 Bourbon troops, plus a strong reserve to the north at Monteleone (now Vibo Valentia).

Garibaldi arrives in Milazzo

Naples. The limitations of the young King Francis II (Franceschiello or Lasagna, as he was nicknamed) are becoming apparent. The court and even his closest relatives are divided between opposing factions. After much hesitation, he attempts to negotiate with the Kingdom of Sardinia and even

Palermo. The first reinforcement expedition arrives for Garibaldi’s men, led by Giacomo Medici: 2,500 men with 8,000 excellent Enfield rifles. Two more follow, under the command of Cosenz and the Tuscan Malenchini.

Palermo. The Bourbons sign the capitulation.

The American Democratic Party, the last national political organization, also splits into Northerners and Southerners, presenting two different candidates in the presidential election.

Palermo. Garibaldi, attempting to move counterclockwise around the city’s defenses, stumbles upon the Bourbon column led by the Swiss Von Mechel, one of the most active Bourbon mercenaries. He then sets his men on the march again in the rain, heading for Corleone, giving the

Palermo. Garibaldi attempts to advance toward Monreale, southwest of Palermo, but is repulsed. The Bourbons take advantage of this to surprise and defeat a concentration of insurgents, killing, among others, Rosolino Pilo, one of the first and main instigators of the Sicilian revolt. Garibaldi’s situation

Garibaldi and his men arrive in sight of Palermo, on the mountains that crown the city.

Chicago, Republican Convention: In the first runoff, Seward receives 173 votes, Lincoln 102, Chase 49, and Bates 48: Lincoln surprisingly emerges as the only candidate capable of challenging Seward. In the second runoff, Pennsylvania swings to Lincoln’s side, bringing its vote total to 181 to

Chicago, Republican Party convention: the party’s various factions debate a presidential candidate. There are the businessmen of the East, the refined intellectuals of New England, the rugged freesoilers of the frontier, the frontiersmen of the Midwest, the workers of Pennsylvania, the conservatives and the Puritan

Palermo. Bourbon general Ruffo di Castelcicala, a veteran of Waterloo, reports facing “masses of Sicilians” and “enemies without number.” It’s crucial to emphasize that it is this enemy the Bourbons believe they are dealing with, not just the Thousand. Without this consideration, the events that

Partinico. The villagers attack the Bourbon troops fleeing from Calatafimi. They must force their way to Palermo. This is the first episode of a brutal and merciless civil war, one that, since the Spanish Civil War, has become the nightmare of every army. There are

The very day after Calatafimi, many Sicilians took up arms again against the Neapolitans, stirring up hatreds that had been chewed over for decades.

Garibaldi defeats the Bourbon army at Calatafimi. Garibaldi’s troops, under his command, consist of 1,089 volunteers, including 37 skilled Carabinieri sharpshooters known as “Genoese,” 500 Sicilian picciotti, and 2,000 local peasants. The Bourbon troops, under Brigadier General Landi, consist of approximately 3,000 Bourbon soldiers: the

Calatafimi. Some companies of Neapolitan Cacciatori, thinking they could easily route the bandits, began to descend from the “Pianto dei Romani” hill, shooting. When they reached the valley between the two hills, they had their first surprise: they heard a trumpet sound. Ragged rebels usually

Calatafimi. The Bourbons spot Garibaldi’s famous men on the horizon. To their eyes, they are a rabble of people dressed in the strangest and most diverse garb. The two small, antiquated cannons of the Thousand, which had been taken from Talamone, appear loaded aboard Sicilian

Marsala. The Thousand set out for the interior of the island. During the march, they are joined by the Baron of Sant’Anna with his squads of picciotti: a few hundred men in all, but all “mountain dwellers armed to the teeth, with stern faces and

Marsala. The steamships Piemonte and Lombardo are captured by the Bourbons. The Thousand, even if they wanted to, have no way to leave the island.

Marsala. Late at night. The Thousand are happily drunk on the excellent local wine (“There’s a certain treacherous local wine, and we’ve been fasting for so many days!”).

Marsala. Two Neapolitan warships appear in front of the port just as the Thousand are disembarking from the steamships Piemonte and Lombardo. They hesitate due to a lack of specific orders, even though the authorities are aware of Garibaldi’s operation. When they begin shooting, it’s

Garibaldi and the Thousand landed in Sicily, at Marsala, to a festive welcome from the local population. The Thousand, who actually numbered 1,089 at the time of landing, swelled within a few weeks to over 20,000 soldiers under Garibaldi’s command, thanks to local volunteers who

Garibaldi’s Thousand consisted of three groups: veterans of the battles of 1848-49 (the most trusted group, including Bixio, Sirtoti, Medici, and Cosenz); volunteers from the Alpine Hunters; and finally, last-minute volunteers, including many university students and wealthy members of the elite. They included 100 doctors,

Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Expedition of 1000: departs from Quarto (Genoa) bound for Sicily

Modena. Vittorio Emanuele II crosses the northern barrier of Modena to enter the avenue named after him.

Savoy. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. 130,839 voters cast their votes, with 130,523 voting in favor.

County of Nice. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Voters numbered 25,993, with 25,743 voting yes.

Palermo. Spontaneous attempted anti-Bourbon uprising.

In the United States there are 31,513,000 inhabitants of which 4,441,830 are black, of whom 3,953,760 are slaves, all in the Southern states where they form about 40% of the population: an unresolved issue of enormous proportions.

The population of the United States of America is 31,513,000.

Cavour, having returned to power, advocated a plan for a new government based on regional autonomy. The author of the plan was the new Minister of the Interior, Luigi Carlo Farini. However, it was he who first raised the alarm in Cavour when, on October

After annexing Parma, Modena, Romagna, and Tuscany with French approval, Piedmont was finally able to sign the Treaty of Turin, ceding Nice and Savoy, which Napoleon III used to justify his heavy war losses. Cavour’s plan was realized.

China. Russia, unlike all Western powers, has had an embassy in China for a century and a half. The Tsar effectively acts as a mediator in the crisis between China and the Western powers. In exchange, he demands and receives Outer Manchuria, along the Pacific

Emilia is annexed to Piedmont with a popular plebiscite

Tuscany is annexed to Piedmont with a popular plebiscite

Duchy of Modena and Reggio. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Voters: 108,798 out of 131,527 registered; 108,336 in favor. For the Massa and Carrara portion of the Duchy of Modena: voters: 23,584 out of 36,814 registered; 23,492 in favor (with only 62

Tuscany and the former papal legations (Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forlì). Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. For Tuscany, 386,445 voters voted, with 366,571 voting yes; for the former papal legations, 427,512 voted, with 426,006 voting yes.

Italy is connected to Africa by telegraph cables through Corsica.