Industrial oil extraction begins; 825 billion barrels will be extracted in 140 years (24 billion per year in the final years of the 20th century).

To everyone’s surprise, thick coral encrustations were found on a transatlantic telegraph cable lying at a depth of 3km, which was recovered for repairs; it was believed, in fact, that there was no life below 600m.

Charleston, South Carolina. Following the results of the presidential election, South Carolina declared itself an independent republic and considered its ties with the Union severed: it was secession. President Lincoln saw secession not only as the moral defeat of democracy, but also as the fragmentation of North America into hostile powers, like Europe: endless strife, millions of men under arms arrayed on both sides of the Potomac, militarism, internal turmoil, and social reaction. A victory for the Union, however, would not only have preserved American democracy but could have broadened its horizons for the future, seeking the overthrow of tyrannies and the advent of freedom. With these ideas, expressed from his inauguration, Lincoln demonstrated the impressive realism of visionaries, spanning continents and centuries. The Southern states poised to secede had found in him a formidable adversary.

Modena. Via Vittorio Emanuele, recently inaugurated and with its covered canal, features a central section paved with cobblestones and a horse-drawn tram in the center, which can take you from the station to Piazza Sant’Agostino for 10 cents, passing through Via Farini and Via Emilia.

US Presidential Election: Republican Lincoln sweeps the entire North, winning 17 states and an absolute majority of seats: 180 electoral votes. His opponents won only 11 states (Breckinridge, 72 electoral votes), 3 states (Bell, 39 electoral votes), and 1 state (Douglas, 12 electoral votes). Counting only the states remaining in the Union, Lincoln wins 47.2% of the popular vote and the Democrats 46.6%. Counting all states, the percentages are: Lincoln wins 39.82% of the popular vote, John Cabell Breckinridge (Southern Democrat) 18%, John Bell (Constitutional/Whig) 13%, and Stephen Arnold Douglas (30%).

Marche and Umbria. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. In Marche, 134,977 voters cast their votes, with 133,765 voting in favor and 77,023 abstentions. In Umbria, 5,097,708 voters cast their votes, with 97,040 voting in favor.

Gaeta. The Savoy army, which had now replaced Garibaldi’s men, managed to overcome the last of the barriers placed by the Bourbons to slow down the advance to Gaeta. They faced a formidable fortress with 12,000 soldiers and 700 cannons and howitzers. They spent several weeks positioning and preparing the siege, including the brand-new Cavalli cannons, designed by a Piedmontese officer. These rifled, breech-loading guns had a greater range than the Bourbon ones, allowing them to bombard them without fear of being hit.

Capua. One of the three divisions into which the Bourbon army was divided surrendered after a night of bombardment. The second found refuge in the Papal States, where it was welcomed and disarmed by the French General Guyon. The third took refuge in Gaeta for a final stand.

Japan. Shishi Terrorism. A group of anti-Western terrorists successfully attack and behead Regent Ii Naosuke, who had proposed a new treaty with the West.

The new Interior Minister, Luigi Carlo Farini, promoter of a federal state organization, on a visit to the South, raised alarm in Cavour, writing: “But, my friend, what kind of countries are these, Molise and Terra di Lavoro! What barbarism! Far from Italy! This is Africa: the Bedouins, compared to these louts, are the very embodiment of civil virtue. And what misdeeds!” Cavour would therefore change his mind starting in December 1860, favoring a solid unification of Italy, shelving any plans for decentralization.

Manfredo Fanti established the jurisdiction of military tribunals for all types of brigandage, and the execution order went into effect for anyone who incited insurrection or insulted the king or the flag. A decade of ruthless war on brigandage began.

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. In the Kingdom of Naples, 1,745,086 voters cast their votes, with 1,302,064 voting in favor and 479,914 abstentions. In Sicily, 500,000 voters cast their votes, with 432,053 voting in favor.

The end of the Second Opium War with China placed England at an advantage, and China at a disadvantage, from which it would not recover for well over a century. The English, having run out of silver to pay for Chinese goods, forced the Chinese to accept payment in Indian opium (a British colony) and receive silver in exchange.

Beijing’s Summer Palace is destroyed. British troops occupy Beijing, sack it, and then burn the Yuanmingyuan, the fabulous summer palace built by the Manchu emperors in the 18th century. Shortly thereafter, the Qing Dynasty surrendered to Anglo-French forces, ending the Second Opium War and China’s hopes of reversing foreign domination of its national affairs. Around 1870, Chinese Empress Dowager Cixi began rebuilding the palace and its magnificent gardens, renaming it Yiheyuan, or “Garden of Health and Harmony.” In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, the palace was again burned by Western troops and remained in ruins until the Chinese Communists rebuilt it in the 1950s.

Macerone Pass, above Isernia. The Piedmontese army, having just entered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, is attacked by 2,000 Bourbon regulars and approximately 4,000 peasants. The Savoyards resist the assault, await reinforcements, and counterattack, encircling the enemy, who surrenders.

China. The Anglo-French expeditionary forces attack the Summer Palace of Emperor Kangxi: the Yuan Ming Yuan, which concentrates the pinnacle of all the splendors of Chinese civilization, in over two hundred buildings and gardens.

Garibaldi decisively defeats the Bourbons at the Volturno River. The victory, however, costs 1,600 dead and wounded, compared to 1,200 Bourbon troops, a testament to how difficult it was. The Volturno, the Thermopylae of Italy, represents the highest peak and also the beginning of the decline of Garibaldi’s dreams.

Volturno. Late afternoon. The Neapolitans abandon their attack and return to Capua. The troops of the unfortunate Ruiz, however, disband and attack the Royal Palace of Caserta, sacking it. Garibaldi intervenes personally with the troops he finds available, including several hundred sharpshooters who have just landed in Naples. The operation ends with 2,000 prisoners.

Volturno. Early afternoon. The Swiss Papal General von Mechel and his 3,000 mercenaries continue to fight successfully against Bixio’s troops at Ponti della Valle, awaiting Ruiz’s outflanking. Ruiz is blocked at Castelmorrone by a small group of Garibaldi’s men on a half-collapsed fortress. He relentlessly attempts to capture it, and, assault after assault, loses the entire afternoon. Bronzetti’s Garibaldi men, in fact, defend themselves heroically despite the enormous disproportion of forces. First with rifles, then with stones, and finally with bayonets. The fortress surrenders after four hours, with two-thirds of its defenders dead or wounded. Bronzetti himself is killed while waving the white flag. But the objective has been achieved, and von Mechel has already been forced to retreat.

Volturno. At dawn. The Bourbon blue columns emerging from Capua attack Garibaldi’s right wing. The assault is well-planned. Garibaldi intervenes immediately to prevent the worst, calling in the 2,500 men of Turr’s reserve and managing to stabilize the front. The front on his right, however, is unreachable, but Bixio is there. Garibaldi calls Ponti della Valle the Thermopylae of the Thousand because it is there that one must stay or die. Von Mechel’s first assaults with his 3,000 Swiss mercenaries are successful. He expects his subordinate Ruiz to carry out an outflanking maneuver with the 5,000 Neapolitans, as agreed. But at Castelmorrone, the latter finds a small group of Garibaldians barricaded in the ruins of a ruined castle.

Volturno. Early morning. Garibaldi finds himself with more men than he’d ever had before: 20,000 with several cannons. Many are volunteers from the north, while many Sicilians consider their mission complete once they’ve passed the Strait of Messina. Finally, the conscription in the rest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies has proven a mixed failure: for example, in Naples, where Garibaldi was greeted by a jubilant crowd, there are only 80 volunteers. On the Volturno, Garibaldi deploys the Pole Milbitz with 3,000 men on the left, at Santa Maria; Medici with 4,000 men at Sant’Angelo in Formis on Mount Tifata; Sacchi at San Leucio with 1,800; and finally Bixio with more than 5,000 at Ponti della Valle on the right. In Caserta, there are also 5,600 reserve men, under the command of the Hungarian Turr. The Bourbons deployed 3,000 mercenaries and 5,000 Neapolitans on Garibaldi’s left, and 20,000 men were arriving from Capua on the right.

China. Prince Seng, the ferocious Mongol leader of the Chinese imperial army, has British diplomats captured and imprisoned. The prisoners are treated inhumanely, bound so tightly that their limbs become gangrenous, and they are eaten alive by worms. The description of these tortures will provoke Western vengeance, culminating in the sacking of the Summer Palace.

Papal Ancona surrenders to the Piedmontese army.

Castelfidardo. The surviving papal troops and their allies, taking refuge in the sanctuary of Loreto, surrender: 3,000 men with 11 cannons. Among them was De Pimodan, seriously wounded, but not Lamocriciere, who fled toward Ancona, leaving behind decorations and personal belongings.

Castelfidardo. Decisive battle between Piedmontese and Papal troops. Papal commander Lamoriciere, famous for his battles in Algeria and against the democratic extremists of 1548, reaches Castelfidardo with 5,000 men and 12 cannons, when he runs into Cialdini’s column with 14,000 men and 24 cannons. The battle takes place between Castelfidardo and Loreto, with the massive Loreto sanctuary dominating the battle. The papal soldiers have just attended mass before a standard that had been used in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. This speaks volumes about the Crusader sentiments and the significance attributed to their action. The papal forces take the initiative, which is then thwarted by the Italian counterattack. Resistance is fierce, and De Pimodan, the true soul of the papal army, tries to make the best use of his reserves. He is hit twice, the second time critically. Without a leader, the papal forces retreat. Historians have often taken this victory for granted, but it wasn’t a priori. On the papal side, Austrian riflemen and Franco-Belgian Zouaves also fought, putting up an almost fanatical resistance, defeated by cannon fire. The survivors took refuge in Loreto, and 3,000 men with 11 cannons surrendered.

In the first week of the Piedmontese military campaign in the Papal States, Città di Castello surrendered almost without resistance, and in Perugia one sixth of the entire papal army surrendered without a fight.

Cavour’s military campaign through the Marches and Umbria to reach Garibaldi who was ascending the peninsula from the south towards Rome.

Cialdini acted quickly and decisively, entering the Papal States from Romagna and Umbria and immediately attacking enemy strongholds. It was striking that in the Piedmontese camp, even among Catholics, there were no qualms about fighting against the Papal State. A Piedmontese Catholic commander, Della Rocca, wrote of having a priest shot in Perugia for firing on his men, adding that he had no remorse.

Cavour devised a lightning military operation to capitalize on Garibaldi’s expedition. He attacked the Papal States (something unthinkable just a few weeks earlier!), keeping well clear of Lazio and Rome, protected by French troops, and then advanced on Naples, where Garibaldi was stationed. Manfredo Fanti initially commanded the Piedmontese, but he later retired due to illness. Another man from Modena, Cialdini, took command. He led the larger of the two columns and entered the Marche with five divisions through Umbria and Romagna.

Naples. Garibaldi’s arrival is paradoxical amidst the general chaos of power in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. No one knows who commands what. The general arrives virtually alone, without an escort, in the kingdom’s capital. To ensure the train he is arriving on arrives on time, a convoy carrying fully armed royal soldiers is diverted onto a siding. The crowd that welcomes him gathers beneath the fort, with cannons still ready to fire. In the carriage carrying him through the streets, Liborio Romano, the king’s police minister, is beside him, formally in full command.

Garibaldi enters Naples triumphantly

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy witnesses the death of his favorite brother Nikolai, from tuberculosis (his other brother Dmitrii had died of the same disease 4 years earlier).

Naples. King Francis II leaves the city to escape the hostility he senses. He goes first to Gaeta and then to the fortress of Capua. He will instigate a loyalist uprising that will lead to the rise of banditry, bloodily suppressed by the Carabinieri over the next decade.

Calabria, Basilicata, Campania: the army of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies is in complete disarray. The army practically ceases to exist, and thousands desert, wandering through the mountains to return home. The coastal forts surrender without being attacked. Cavour’s emissaries are undoubtedly active at this stage, trying to widen the gap between the Neapolitan army and the king. In particular, the finger is pointed at Pianell, Minister of War, and General Nunziante (who later became a general of the Italian Army). In this scenario, Garibaldi’s men advance up Italy in several groups by ship, steamboat, train, and on foot.

In Milazzo, the Bourbon commander Bosco surrenders. Of the Sicilian cities, only Messina remains in Neapolitan hands. But fearful of a popular uprising, the soldiers retreat to the fortress of Messina, and Clary, the Bourbon commander of Messina, signs the surrender.

Melito, Calabria, south of Reggio Calabria. Garibaldi, with just over 3,000 men, faces 16,000 Bourbon troops, plus a strong reserve to the north at Monteleone (now Vibo Valentia).

Garibaldi arrives in Milazzo

Naples. The limitations of the young King Francis II (Franceschiello or Lasagna, as he was nicknamed) are becoming apparent. The court and even his closest relatives are divided between opposing factions. After much hesitation, he attempts to negotiate with the Kingdom of Sardinia and even with Garibaldi.

Palermo. The first reinforcement expedition arrives for Garibaldi’s men, led by Giacomo Medici: 2,500 men with 8,000 excellent Enfield rifles. Two more follow, under the command of Cosenz and the Tuscan Malenchini.

Palermo. The Bourbons sign the capitulation.

The American Democratic Party, the last national political organization, also splits into Northerners and Southerners, presenting two different candidates in the presidential election.

Palermo. Garibaldi, attempting to move counterclockwise around the city’s defenses, stumbles upon the Bourbon column led by the Swiss Von Mechel, one of the most active Bourbon mercenaries. He then sets his men on the march again in the rain, heading for Corleone, giving the impression of retreat. After a few kilometers, however, he divides his forces: the cannons, wagons, wounded, and picciotti who no longer wish to follow him continue toward Corleone, while the bulk of the troops moves eastward along steep paths and through the woods. Von Mechel’s 3,000 elite hunters fall for the trap and continue toward Corleone. Meanwhile, Garibaldi makes a wide detour and unexpectedly appears in Palermo from the east.

Palermo. Garibaldi attempts to advance toward Monreale, southwest of Palermo, but is repulsed. The Bourbons take advantage of this to surprise and defeat a concentration of insurgents, killing, among others, Rosolino Pilo, one of the first and main instigators of the Sicilian revolt. Garibaldi’s situation is difficult.

Garibaldi and his men arrive in sight of Palermo, on the mountains that crown the city.

Chicago, Republican Convention: In the first runoff, Seward receives 173 votes, Lincoln 102, Chase 49, and Bates 48: Lincoln surprisingly emerges as the only candidate capable of challenging Seward. In the second runoff, Pennsylvania swings to Lincoln’s side, bringing its vote total to 181 to Seward’s 184. In the third runoff, thanks to votes from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, Lincoln reaches 231, just two votes shy of the nomination. Finally, with the transfer of votes from New York and Michigan, Lincoln wins the Republican nomination.

Chicago, Republican Party convention: the party’s various factions debate a presidential candidate. There are the businessmen of the East, the refined intellectuals of New England, the rugged freesoilers of the frontier, the frontiersmen of the Midwest, the workers of Pennsylvania, the conservatives and the Puritan abolitionists (of slavery). In the end, the most prominent figures are too partisan, and they fall back on a secondary figure who everyone can agree on. For the first time, a presidential candidate has the rugged and energetic hands of the frontiersmen and freesoilers of the Midwest: a former provincial lawyer from Illinois: Abraham Lincoln.

Palermo. Bourbon general Ruffo di Castelcicala, a veteran of Waterloo, reports facing “masses of Sicilians” and “enemies without number.” It’s crucial to emphasize that it is this enemy the Bourbons believe they are dealing with, not just the Thousand. Without this consideration, the events that follow cannot be understood.

Partinico. The villagers attack the Bourbon troops fleeing from Calatafimi. They must force their way to Palermo. This is the first episode of a brutal and merciless civil war, one that, since the Spanish Civil War, has become the nightmare of every army. There are reports of the bodies of Bourbon troops being roasted halfway through cooking by the people of Partinico, so they can show them to “Garibardo.”

The very day after Calatafimi, many Sicilians took up arms again against the Neapolitans, stirring up hatreds that had been chewed over for decades.

Garibaldi defeats the Bourbon army at Calatafimi. Garibaldi’s troops, under his command, consist of 1,089 volunteers, including 37 skilled Carabinieri sharpshooters known as “Genoese,” 500 Sicilian picciotti, and 2,000 local peasants. The Bourbon troops, under Brigadier General Landi, consist of approximately 3,000 Bourbon soldiers: the VIII Cacciatori Battalion commanded by Major Sforza, the II Battalion of the X Regiment of the Line commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Pini, the II Battalion of the Carabinieri commanded by Lieutenant Colonel De Cosiron, four howitzers, and a Squadron of Horse Cacciatori. After an initial advance, the Bourbon troops retreat, partly out of surprise at the courage and discipline of Garibaldi’s men, which arouses admiration among the Neapolitan Cacciatori and many Bourbon soldiers. In military history, the Battle of Calatafimi represents a decisive engagement, little more than a skirmish. Nevertheless, the clash would have enormous strategic consequences. The disorganized arrival of Landi’s column, with soldiers exhausted by fatigue and hunger, would make a profound impression on the citizens of Palermo. Garibaldi would immediately assume, in the popular imagination, the role of an invincible leader, under whose command they would unite to fight the Neapolitan occupiers.

Calatafimi. Some companies of Neapolitan Cacciatori, thinking they could easily route the bandits, began to descend from the “Pianto dei Romani” hill, shooting. When they reached the valley between the two hills, they had their first surprise: they heard a trumpet sound. Ragged rebels usually didn’t have trumpets! Accurate fire from the Genoese carabinieri followed by a bayonet charge. The Bourbon troops hastily retreated. Then the impetus of some units of the Thousand was such that Garibaldi was forced to give the general order to attack. The hill featured several terraces that had to be conquered one at a time with bayonet attacks. The final assault, to the summit with all the enemy units waiting, seemed hopeless. Bixio asked the general if it wasn’t time to retreat, but Garibaldi replied, “Here we make Italy or die.” Finally, the summit was conquered and a cannon was captured. In the final stages of the battle, the Sicilian picciotti, who had previously remained waiting on a nearby hill, moved towards the Bourbons, causing them to fear an attempted encirclement.

Calatafimi. The Bourbons spot Garibaldi’s famous men on the horizon. To their eyes, they are a rabble of people dressed in the strangest and most diverse garb. The two small, antiquated cannons of the Thousand, which had been taken from Talamone, appear loaded aboard Sicilian carts painted with religious scenes. The Neapolitan soldiers shout: “Come now, come now, you ragged men, you scoundrels, you scoundrels!”

Marsala. The Thousand set out for the interior of the island. During the march, they are joined by the Baron of Sant’Anna with his squads of picciotti: a few hundred men in all, but all “mountain dwellers armed to the teeth, with stern faces and eyes like the muzzles of pistols; all these people are led by gentlemen to whom they obey with devotion.” The population remains cold and fearful during this initial phase, so these picciotti are the Thousand’s only Sicilian support, initially.

Marsala. The steamships Piemonte and Lombardo are captured by the Bourbons. The Thousand, even if they wanted to, have no way to leave the island.

Marsala. Late at night. The Thousand are happily drunk on the excellent local wine (“There’s a certain treacherous local wine, and we’ve been fasting for so many days!”).

Marsala. Two Neapolitan warships appear in front of the port just as the Thousand are disembarking from the steamships Piemonte and Lombardo. They hesitate due to a lack of specific orders, even though the authorities are aware of Garibaldi’s operation. When they begin shooting, it’s too late: the Thousand have already taken shelter on dry land.

Garibaldi and the Thousand landed in Sicily, at Marsala, to a festive welcome from the local population. The Thousand, who actually numbered 1,089 at the time of landing, swelled within a few weeks to over 20,000 soldiers under Garibaldi’s command, thanks to local volunteers who joined the effort, encouraged by the island’s self-proclaimed dictator, Garibaldi.

Garibaldi’s Thousand consisted of three groups: veterans of the battles of 1848-49 (the most trusted group, including Bixio, Sirtoti, Medici, and Cosenz); volunteers from the Alpine Hunters; and finally, last-minute volunteers, including many university students and wealthy members of the elite. They included 100 doctors, 100 merchants, 50 engineers, 50 naval captains, 20 pharmacists, 10 painters and sculptors, and the rest were artisans and laborers. Only one was a farmer, while three were former priests. The number of university graduates was extraordinarily high: enough to supply at least five medium-sized cities of the time. Among the Ligurians were 36 Genoese Carabinieri volunteers under the command of Antonio Mosto, armed and equipped at their own expense. They proved to be disciplined soldiers and expert marksmen. They also included 23 guides, who would be continually used by Garibaldi, eager for information on the terrain. The youngest of the Thousand is 11 years old, the oldest is 69.

Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Expedition of 1000: departs from Quarto (Genoa) bound for Sicily

Modena. Vittorio Emanuele II crosses the northern barrier of Modena to enter the avenue named after him.

Savoy. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. 130,839 voters cast their votes, with 130,523 voting in favor.

County of Nice. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Voters numbered 25,993, with 25,743 voting yes.

Palermo. Spontaneous attempted anti-Bourbon uprising.

In the United States there are 31,513,000 inhabitants of which 4,441,830 are black, of whom 3,953,760 are slaves, all in the Southern states where they form about 40% of the population: an unresolved issue of enormous proportions.

The population of the United States of America is 31,513,000.

Cavour, having returned to power, advocated a plan for a new government based on regional autonomy. The author of the plan was the new Minister of the Interior, Luigi Carlo Farini. However, it was he who first raised the alarm in Cavour when, on October 27, 1860, while visiting the newly acquired territories in the South, he wrote: “But, my friend, what kind of countries are these? Molise is Terra di Lavoro! What barbarism! Far from Italy! This is Africa: the Bedouins, compared to these louts, are the very embodiment of civil virtue. And what great and how many misdeeds!” Cavour would therefore change his mind starting in December 1860, favoring a solid unification of Italy, shelving any plans for decentralization.

After annexing Parma, Modena, Romagna, and Tuscany with French approval, Piedmont was finally able to sign the Treaty of Turin, ceding Nice and Savoy, which Napoleon III used to justify his heavy war losses. Cavour’s plan was realized.

China. Russia, unlike all Western powers, has had an embassy in China for a century and a half. The Tsar effectively acts as a mediator in the crisis between China and the Western powers. In exchange, he demands and receives Outer Manchuria, along the Pacific Ocean coast, 900,000 square kilometers previously Chinese, including the important port of Vladivostok.

Emilia is annexed to Piedmont with a popular plebiscite

Tuscany is annexed to Piedmont with a popular plebiscite

Duchy of Modena and Reggio. Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Voters: 108,798 out of 131,527 registered; 108,336 in favor. For the Massa and Carrara portion of the Duchy of Modena: voters: 23,584 out of 36,814 registered; 23,492 in favor (with only 62 votes against, excluding invalid votes). A vote had already been held to elect an assembly for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia in August 1859.

Tuscany and the former papal legations (Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forlì). Plebiscite for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia. For Tuscany, 386,445 voters voted, with 366,571 voting yes; for the former papal legations, 427,512 voted, with 426,006 voting yes.

Italy is connected to Africa by telegraph cables through Corsica.

England was connected by telegraph cables, laid between 1850 and 1860, with France, Ireland, Denmark and Sweden.