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Peak of the spread of leprosy in the West.

Mongolia. After Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, other clans, such as the Solons, spontaneously recognized his authority. The Khan received two new wives, daughters of the Tatar clan leader.

Fourth Crusade. While the large crusade winters in Zadar, the Venetians (who constitute the bulk of the attacking fleet) pressure the crusader commander Villehardouin to attack Constantinople on his way to the East. It is decided to march on Constantinople and place Alexius the Younger

Fourth Crusade. Crusader commander Villehardouin and his Venetian allies win the siege of Zadar and subdue it. Given the advanced season, they decide to postpone the crusade to the East until the following spring.

Fourth Crusade. Venice gathers 33,500 men (including 4,500 knights and cavalry, 9,000 squires, and 20,000 infantry) in exchange for the promise of 85,000 silver marks. It also provides transportation (200 ships) and a year’s supply of provisions. Furthermore, in exchange for trade concessions, territory, and

Leonardo da Pisa, known as Fibonacci (son of Bonacci), discovered the Fibonacci Sequence: f(1)=f(2)=1; f(n)=f(n-1)+f(n-2); that is: 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,…

Leonardo da Pisa, known as Fibonacci, introduced Arabic numerals to Europe; in fact, in 1202 he published the Book of Calculations (Liber Abaci), which is a collection of almost all the mathematics known at the time.

Venice is home to approximately 80,000 people. Within a century, the population will double.

There are (only) 2.2 million people living in England. By 1340, there will be 4.5 million.

Eight million people live in Germany. By 1340, there will be fourteen million.

The first humans arrive on Rapa Nui, Easter Island; within 100 years they will reach the peak of civilization and then extinguish all available wood and civilization will rapidly decline.

John Lackland, King of England

Venice obtains from Pope Innocent III the recognition that, lacking agriculture, it must live off trade. Venice is thus authorized to trade with the Sultan of Alexandria, with the exception of certain products blacklisted by the papacy: iron, pitch, tar, timber, and ships. Arab science

Temujin unites the tribes of Mongolia and takes the title of Genghis Khan.

Mongolia. Temujin is first proclaimed Chinggis Qa’an (Genghis Khan) at an assembly of nobles (quiriltai).

Locust invasion in Austria and Hungary

Japan, establishment of the government of the shogun (supreme military office) and overthrow of the imperial power – will last until 1868, when the emperor is reinstated

Pope Innocent III: Height of the Roman Catholic Church’s Influence in Europe

During his military expedition to the Holy Land, Frederick Barbarossa fell into the Goksu River in Anatolia and drowned.

Modena. The Albareto Gate (later Porta Castello) is built on the north side of the city walls.

Construction of the Great Mosque of Seville and its minaret (later known as La Giralda)

Saladin’s Third Siege of Aleppo, Syria

Mongolia. Temujin (the future Genghis Khan) returns to reclaim the bride promised so many years ago, from the Onggirad clan. They keep their word and celebrate the marriage. He then goes to To’oril, of the Kerait clan, who had sworn brotherhood to his father, to

Origin of the Chocolate Egg (later known as the Easter Egg)

Battle of Myriokephalon, Western Anatolia. The Turks defeat the Byzantines under Manuel Comnenus. This is one of the first accounts of the Turks in the West.

Peace between Frederick Barbarossa and Pope Alexander II, who obtained recognition of his office and the renunciation of any imperial claim to Matilda’s possessions and those of Lazio. With the League, Frederick limited himself to concluding two truces lasting six and fifteen years. The emperor

Battle of Legnano, in which the Lombard League defeats Frederick Barbarossa. The cities of northern Italy inflict a defeat on Barbarossa that astounds the feudal world.

3:00 PM. Battle of Legnano. Teutonic charges continued for several hours without success. The Germans counted the dead, including the imperial standard-bearer. At this point, the city forces reversed the situation with a sudden, coordinated counterattack of infantry, cavalry, and reserve cavalry. The Lombards even

9:00 AM. Battle of Legnano. The Teutonic Knights advance southward with 3,500 heavy cavalry, including about a hundred men from Como. The Lombards, on the other hand, have a defensive line, with the Carroccio in a raised position. At mid-morning, the two vanguards suddenly collide,

The truce of Montebello between the Imperial and League forces expires. Hostilities resume, but on a smaller scale, curtailed by the arrival of winter. But the message is clear: with spring, things will recover in full force…

Modena. During a meeting of the “Consiglio Grosso,” it was decided, out of envy of Bologna, to establish a “Studio,” or University, in Modena as well. And Professor Pillio da Medicina, a distinguished jurist, was secretly hired in Bologna. Within a few years, other professors

Inauguration of the University of Modena. It is the second-oldest university in Italy, after Bologna.

Montebello Plain (the same site of the two great battles of 1800 between Napoleon and the Austrians and of 1859 between the Austrians and the Piedmontese). The imperial armies of Frederick Barbarossa and the armies of the League with the Carroccio are scrutinized, ready for

The infantry and knights of Milan set out along the Via Emilia to join up with their allies in Piacenza, who were joined by troops on foot and on horseback from various other towns including those from Modena and Reggio Emilia, for a total of

The League strengthened its southeastern flank: a further political-military agreement linked Mantua, Parma, Reggio, Modena, and Bologna. In the area, Medicina and Canossa were claimed by the Empire.

Frederick’s army marches toward Northern Italy. Crossing the Western Alps, they advance into Haute-Savoie and reach Susa, which is devastated by the Teutonic Order, razing the city to the ground and setting it ablaze. Only Pavia and the Marquis of Montferrat remain with the Empire.

Frederick Barbarossa is once again preparing to descend into Italy at the head of an imposing army of around 8,000 Teutonic knights, which, with the usual squires, auxiliaries and servants, reaches around 20,000 men.

Constantinople. Byzantine Emperor Manuel Comnenus suddenly arrests all Venetians in the Empire and confiscates their assets. The Venetians have been Byzantine allies for decades, but the Empire is increasingly dependent on the Venetians, who in recent years have been mocking them.

Pavia and Como, two of Milan’s most tenacious adversaries and allies of the Empire, also joined the League. Pavia refused and had to be subdued by force of arms. Financial aid arrived from England, as King Henry II Plantagenet was hostile to Frederick’s imperial claims,

Brianbate, eastern Piedmont. A strong League army composed of Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Novara, and Vercelli attacks and conquers the city. News of Brianbate’s fall reaches Frederick already in the Susa Valley, on his way back to Germany. Frederick indulges in revenge: he takes one of

The city of Alessandria, named after Alexander III, is visible. Frederick is still in Italy, and this is therefore a great affront to him. And this is precisely the intent of Milan, which is investing large resources in the city of Alessandria. The city is

Oxford University is founded

The Pontida Oath is signed by the Italian municipalities. Modena also joins. Frederick Barbarossa is persuaded to return to Germany. He will remain there for six years.

The presence of the Teutonic army did not prevent Novara from joining the League.

Milan. Frederick Barbarossa goes on the offensive against Milan, but is forced to retreat several times, outnumbered, and returns to Pavia after a few days.

Rome. Rainald of Dassel, Frederick Barbarossa’s top personal advisor, also dies of malaria.

The names of Milanese political leaders appear for the first time in the new alliance against Frederick. Lodi and Piacenza are also included. Milanese consuls, former prisoners of the Empire, who had seen friends and colleagues die, appear on the lists: Gerardo Cagapisto, Guidotto Porenzoni,

Lodi surrenders and agrees to join the League, subject to its loyalty to the emperor. Despite the city’s military defeat, it receives excellent terms of surrender. The Milanese thus demonstrate moderation, even ceding a portion of territory to the Lodi people and guaranteeing non-interference in

Oath of Pontida. A formal pledge of peace and friendship. It is not a painless act, since, for example, Milan must concede to the Cremonese the sacrifice of Crema, which they pledge not to rebuild. Imperial ambitions in Northern Italy are for the moment stifled.

Sicily. Struck by a sudden and violent attack of dysentery, William I of Sicily dies at just 46 years old. The kingdom passes into the hands of his widow, Margaret, regent for the young William II. This weakness will attract the attention of Frederick Barbarossa,

Otranto. Presbyter Pantaleone conceived the mosaic “The Tree of Evil,” which was installed in the cathedral, using 600,000 fine mosaic tiles. This depiction, with scenes of monstrous beings and tormented humanity, would seem to become reality to the villagers in July 1480, with the arrival

Anti-Pope Victor IV dies. Rainald of Dassel, without even consulting Frederick, immediately elects a new anti-Pope: Paschal III. The bellicose chancellor wants to thwart any attempts at peace with Rome. Even after the destruction of Milan, the Emperor finds it difficult to untangle and control

Civic discontent and diplomatic pressure from Venice and the Byzantines led Vicenza and Padua to take a dramatic stance, joining Venice in a sworn pact to oppose the Empire. Frederick, for his part, attempted to contain the rebellious cities by granting them important privileges, thus

John of Salisbury writes in his Metalogicon: “Bernard of Chartres said that we are dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants because we can see more and further than they: therefore not because of the sharpness of our sight or the stature of our body,

Pope Adrian IV, a longtime friend of Manuel Comnenus and the cause of Milan, dies. The majority of cardinals choose the Sienese Cardinal of San Marco, Rolando Bardinelli, who takes the name Alexander III, while the minority chooses Ottaviano Monticelli, Cardinal of Santa Cecilia. The

Landriano, south of Milan. Frederick Barbarossa and his army take up position and attack the Ambrosian formation by surprise, returning from a victorious mission against the Empire’s common allies. In three consecutive attacks, the imperials, superior in number, defeat the Milanese. 600 are captured and

Milan. The entire month is a succession of attacks and counterattacks. Meanwhile, the Empire’s allies, from Cremona, Pavia, and Lodi, engage in widespread looting and destruction of crops in the countryside. The attackers particularly target trees (olive and fruit trees) and vineyards, which would have

Frederick Barbarossa’s imperial army moves to attack Milan. Trained by the defeat at Erchempert, Frederick carefully organizes the seven columns that attack the city separately. They number perhaps nearly 100,000 men, including Italian contingents, auxiliaries, and retainers. The Italians who swell Frederick’s ranks come from

Frederick arrived in Lodi, which had been half-destroyed by the Milanese a few months earlier. With a solemn ceremony, he refounded the city not far from its original site, in a spot more sheltered from the Adda River, the same spot where it still stands

Frederick Barbarossa’s Bohemian auxiliary knights, passing through the Brescian countryside (Brescia was a traditional ally of the Empire), continued their plundering. But here they encountered resistance from the peasants, who captured, killed, and routed many of them, especially when they operated in isolated groups.

Frederick Barbarossa arrives in Venice, after descending from the Brenner Pass.

Lodi. The Milanese proceed with the systematic destruction of Lodi, setting fire to buildings and cutting down trees.

The Milanese descended on defenseless Lodi (which supported the Empire, but Barbarossa had by then returned to Germany). The people of Lodi fled during the night in the rain and, with a dramatic march, took refuge in the Cremona area, where a refugee camp was

Frederick Barbarossa embarked on a long journey through the western regions of the Empire, to gather what was, for the time, a colossal army, so he could march into Italy, settle the issue with Milan once and for all, and then descend on Rome to

Brindisi. The forces of the Norman William I clash with the Byzantines led by John Doukas. The Normans win on all fronts. The Normans then proceed to reconquer the cities that had surrendered to the Byzantines. In Bari, the inhabitants are forced out, and then

Volpino Castle. The pro-imperial Bergamasques and the pro-Milanese Brescians fight over it. The Brescians attack. The Bergamasques are taken by surprise and scatter. Over 2,500 Bergamasques are taken prisoner, and hundreds of them are killed. The city has 10,000 inhabitants and has just lost nearly

Northern Italy. Frederick Barbarossa had returned to Germany a few weeks earlier, and already the Milanese were taking the initiative to reassert their control over the territory. They built a wooden bridge at Bernate under the helpless gaze of the Pavia people. Thanks to this,

Ambush at the Chiuse. Beyond Verona, at the Adige River locks, a contingent of Veronese soldiers prepares an ambush for the knights of Frederick Barbarossa, who is returning to Germany. But they are betrayed by two Veronese nobles loyal to the Empire. The ambushed Veronese

Rome. With morale at rock bottom due to malaria, despite their victory and coronation, Frederick Barbarossa’s army begins a long and arduous march back to Germany.

Rome. The municipal infantry and knights move toward the Vatican, intending to do battle with the Pope and the newly crowned Frederick Barbarossa. Barbarossa has a mixed contingent of Teutonic and Lombard soldiers, while his cousin Henry the Lion supports him with a thousand Saxon

St. Peter’s, Rome. Frederick Barbarossa is finally crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Hadrian IV. Just before his coronation, Frederick is met by a delegation from the Roman Senate, who propose that he be investiture as emperor by the Roman Senate instead, rejecting the papal

Anagni, near Rome. Frederick Barbarossa had to wait here to be received by Pope Adrian IV, who demanded the gift of the stirrup, with which the emperor was supposed to help the pontiff mount his horse, thus acknowledging himself as a servant of the Church.

Lombardy. The Milanese forces, already victorious at Tortona, pursue the Pavia troops and defeat them heavily in open battle. The balance of power between the Empire and the Communes has been restored: without the presence of Frederick Barbarossa’s Teutonic Knights, his Lombard allies are unable

Tortona. The Milanese, having gathered forces from Porta Ticinese and Porta Vercellina, arrived at forced marches to provide relief to Tortona, amid the jubilation of the exhausted defenders.

Tortona. The Pavians attack the city. The fighting is chaotic and fragments into countless clashes, but ultimately the Pavians must retreat and return to their city without having captured Tortona.

Tortona. While Frederick and his Teutonic troops were already in the Piacenza area, the Milanese under Sarezzano entered the ruins of Tortona, where they joined forces with about fifty local fighters. The Ambrosian troops then regained possession of the city, and the Pavia troops alone

After the drinking water sources were poisoned with sulfur, the city of Tortona, an ally of Milan, surrendered on condition to the besieging army of Frederick Barbarossa. The inhabitants obtained the right to leave the city center unharmed, taking with them what they could, and

Rome. After the very brief pontificate of Anastasius IV (who succeeded Eugene III), the Englishman Nicholas Breakspear becomes Pope, taking the name Adrian IV. He vigorously takes charge and orders the Romans to expel Arnold of Brescia, a preacher who had arrived in the city

Henry II Plantagenet becomes king of England, accumulating large territories in France

Second Crusade. Conrad III carries out the operation with his young son Frederick (later Barbarossa). The Latins reach Jerusalem and make the mistaken decision to attack Damascus, which, however, does not fall. Conrad III ultimately has to re-embark at Acre bound for Constantinople, leaving the