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Hispaniola Island (Caribbean, now the Dominican Republic and Haiti). Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican priest, in a sermon during Mass, referring to the Native Americans, asks: “Tell me, by what right or according to what justice do you hold these Indians in such cruel and

Modena is ceded to the Emperor by Pope Julius II

All Saints’ Day: Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci lands in the bay that will take the name of Baia de Todos os Santos (later Bahia).

Venice. Aldus Manutius invents the pocket book, meaning one that can be carried around. Until then, books had been large tomes, read on special lecterns.

Violent Mercalli magnitude 10 earthquake in Castelnuovo di Modena

Venice, acknowledging its defeat by the Ottoman Turks, signed a peace treaty after 16 years of war. In it, it renounced Negroponte and other Aegean islands and agreed to pay 10,000 ducats a year for its trading privileges. It also ceded the Albanian fortress of

Milan. Panfilo Castaldi publishes the first printed book in Italy: Pompeo’s “De verborum significatione.” For five years, he holds a monopoly on movable-type printing. But the invention does not bring him the success he hoped for, and he is forced to emigrate to Zadar, where

Within a few years of the invention of printing by Johann Gutenberg (1448), printing houses were also founded in Cologne (1464), Basel (1466), Rome (1467), Venice (1469), Nuremberg, Utrecht and Paris (1470), Florence, Milan and Naples (1471), Augsburg (1472), Budapest, Lyon and Valencia (1473), Krakow

Florence. The first patent (though ad personam, without a law) dates back to Filippo Brunelleschi in Florence: it was a privilege for the invention of a barge for transporting large blocks of marble. The first patent recognized by law was issued in 1474 in Venice:

Giovanni Aurelio Augurello, an Italian alchemist, presents his latest work to Pope Leo X: “Crysopeia” in which he describes the procedure for obtaining gold. Having asked the Pope for a fee, the Pope summons him to court and, with great pomp and display of ceremony,

Venice. Monte Vecchio resumes interest payments on its bonds.

Fourth Genoa-Venice War. Chioggia. In a joint action, Vettor Pisani takes Brondolo, while Carlo Zeno conquers Chioggia Minore, massacring the 10,000 Genoese who have taken the field. The siege of Chioggia Maggiore tightens, where Gaspare Spinola arrives to assume command, while Matteo Maruffo’s fleet is

Khwarezm, Central Asia. Timur besieges the prosperous city of Urgench for six months, conquering it and killing the Qonqirat lord Yusuf Sufi.

After conquering Baghdad, the Mongol Hulagu, grandson of Genghis Khan, massacred hundreds of thousands of its citizens, and threw so many books into the Tigris that it was said a horse could cross it. The Caliph was wrapped in a carpet and beaten to death

Middle East. The Egyptian Mamluks control access to Islam’s holy cities in Palestine and Arabia: the political-religious keys to Sunni Islam.

Frederick II, crowned emperor by the Pope, reorganized the political and administrative aspects of the Kingdom of Sicily. He was the “Crimson King”: emperor, patron, artist, and a forerunner of intercultural dialogue, secularism, and the Renaissance. He engaged in dialogue with the Arab world, advocated

Mongolia. Temujin (the future Genghis Khan) is hunted by the rival Taichi’ut clan. After several attempts, they manage to capture him. He is held prisoner with a stock around his neck, but after a few days he manages to free himself and escape.

Herman the Cripple suspects a difference between the church calendar and the celestial one

The Chinese used a revolutionary invention during their voyages westward across the Indian Ocean: the magnetic compass.

Notker the Stammerer, priest and scholar, questions the accuracy of the saints’ dates

The Normans sack Aachen and set fire to Charlemagne’s tomb.

England. Fourteen rulers of the House of Mercia reign.

Khmer Kingdom in Indochina

Ali’ is assassinated in Kufa

Present-day central Iraq. The Arabs defeat the Sassanids at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah. The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah[b] (Arabic: مَعْرَكَة ٱلْقَادِسِيَّة‎) took place between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sassanid Empire in November 636. It resulted in a decisive victory for the Rashidun army and is

Arab Umayyad Dynasty: The Arabs become a major naval power in the Mediterranean, a commercial power in the Indian Ocean

Muhammad sees the archangel Gabriel who tells him to found a new religion to bring the Christian religion to completion

Pontificate of Gregory the Great, which establishes the temporal power of the popes in Italy. Gregory the Great also undertakes the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons.

Mecca, now Saudi Arabia. Muhammad (Muhammad) was born into the city’s prominent tribe, the Quraysh. In 610, at the age of 40, he began receiving divine revelations, and in 622 he was forced to leave Mecca and settle in Medina, an oasis populated by various

Theodoric (Ostrogoths) governs Italy, France, Austria, the Balkans from Ravenna

Gnostic Christianity is outlawed, Gnostic Christians are forcibly converted, and apocryphal gospels are burned.

Martyrdom of Paul in Rome

The passage of a bright comet. The Romans linked it to the death of Claudius.

Conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the constellation of Pisces: the two planets are about 20 arc minutes (1/3 of a degree) apart when looking ESE one hour before dawn.

Documented passage of a comet.

Devastating earthquake in Lower Egypt

The Roman architect Vitruvius describes in his Architectura a machine called an aeolipile. It consists of a hollow sphere filled with water and two pipes emerging at perpendicular angles. If the sphere is heated until the water boils, the resulting steam causes the sphere to

Central Asia. Ten thousand Roman soldiers from Marcus Licinius Crassus’s legions, defeated in battle, were taken prisoner and taken as slaves to Antioch, now called Mary, in Turkmenistan. 145 of these legionaries would later end up with the Han, the dominant ethnic group in China,

Lucca. Conference between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. The latter is assigned the governorship of Syria, which also includes Judea (with the Nabateans) to the south and Galilee to the north. Crassus sees this as an opportunity to gain glory in battle, which he envies both

Until the Romans arrived in Britain, no Englishman ever ate chicken; in fact, only the eggs were eaten.

The beginning of the Roman year is brought forward from March 1st to January 1st

The Greek mathematician and astronomer Apollonius of Perga publishes the 8-volume work Conic Sections, on ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas.

Buddhism arrives in Sri Lanka, according to legend brought by one of Ashoka’s sons

First reported epidemic of mumps.

Anaxagoras: there are infinite seeds and all things are composed, but to a greater extent of those corresponding to a particular one; celestial phenomena are identical to terrestrial ones.

India, Brahmi script appears, ancestor of all Indian and East Asian scripts

Empedocles dies by throwing himself into the caldera of Etna, an active volcano

An earthquake destroys Sparta in the Peloponnese

China: Warring States, a dark period in Chinese history, the philosophical and religious doctrines of Confucianism and then Taoism spread.

Battles of Salamis and Plataea: Greece repel the Persian invasion.

China. First evidence of iron smelting. Over the next 1,500 years, the Chinese would also invent paper, the compass, the wheelbarrow, and gunpowder.

Egypt: Dynasty XXVII (first Persian Domination): Cammise (525-522), Darius I (521-486), Xerxes I (486-466), Artaxerxes I (465-424), Darius II (424-404)

Homer’s Odyssey is “published”

Post-exilic prophets mentioned in the Bible: Haggai, Zechariah, Trito-Isaiah, Obadiah, Malachi, Joel, Jonah

The Etruscans founded Mutna or Muthuna (perhaps from the root Mut “heap” or perhaps from Muthuo “god of the fields and fertility”) which later became Mutina and finally Modena

Anaximander: The Earth is isolated in space

Maximum expansion of Assyria (Mesopotamia, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Persia)

Greek expansion in the Mediterranean (Athens, Sparta, Corinth conquer Southern Italy, Cyrenaica in North Africa, Türkiye, the Black Sea coast)

First prophets mentioned in the Bible: Amos, Hosea, Nahum, Abacus, Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah

Central Ohio, North America. The “Adena Culture” flourishes, leaving as evidence tombs placed on gigantic earthworks, some several kilometers long.

At 162 years old, Jared fathered Enoch; Jared lived another 800 years and fathered other sons and daughters.

Bothnian Sea, between Sweden and Finland. Dozens or hundreds of coastal foragers build the “Giant Churches” (Jatinkirkko): large stone bastions, some 60 meters long. This is a post-Ice Age, non-agricultural population.

The Sumerians invent the wheel

Konya Plain, central Turkey. Around 7400 BC, the city of Catalhoyuk was founded and remained populated for approximately 1,500 years. It covers 13 hectares and has approximately 5,000 inhabitants, yet it has no recognizable center, nor any streets or shared buildings: it is simply a

Kenya, the Nataruk massacre. The partial fossilized remains of 27 individuals are evidence of a massacre that occurred approximately 10,000 years ago. Twelve of the skeletons are well preserved, while ten others show clear signs of violent death, including wounds on the neck caused by

Leopards are becoming extinct in Europe. They were beasts weighing 60-90kg for males and 35-40kg for females: the largest European predators after cave lions and cave hyenas (100kg).

Eemian Interglacial Period. This is the first of only two interglacial periods with temperatures just right and stable enough to allow for the development of agriculture. Humanity missed this opportunity due to its limited range and extremely small population. The second period (Holocene and then

First evidence of Homo sapiens making blades with sharpened stones

The first evidence of stone toolmaking by Homo sapiens: fossilized remains of Paranthropus boisei found in Olduvai Gorge, alongside likely artifacts. This rudimentary technology would evolve over two and a half million years, launching artifacts throughout the Solar System and beyond, communicating continuously with them,

Orrorin Tugenensis, one of the oldest hominids

The history of the Y chromosome diverges from that of the X chromosome. That is, a random mutation gives rise to an allele that confers sexual characteristics regardless of temperature, as previously occurred in many vertebrates. 184 Y genes were already part of the ancestral

Permian (Paleozoic period, Primary era)

Burgess’s Pikaia gracilens represents the first documented member of the chordates, our direct ancestors.

Earth’s first eon: the Hadean. The newly formed Earth is impacted by another planet. Rings and several temporary natural satellites form. At Earth’s surface, the atmosphere is saturated with vaporized rock.

The dominance of dark energy stops the creation of new structures. This is the reason for the absence of structures larger than galaxy superclusters.

Dark energy takes over: the expansion of the universe, which has always slowed down (due to gravity), is now beginning to accelerate. The universe is 57% of its current size. 4.5 billion years later, three teams of world-class supernova hunters led by Saul Perlmutter of

The expansion of the Universe begins to accelerate

Strong star formation begins even in small galaxies

First clusters of galaxies

Epoch of maximum star formation; the Universe is 4 billion years old