Battle of Hattin, Galilee, now Israel. Saladin (Salah al-Din Yusuf) takes Jerusalem and defeats the Frankish Crusaders; Raynald of Antioch is executed by Saladin; Pope Gregory VIII (Alberto de Morra) dies of a heart attack upon hearing the news.

The Domesday Book records the estates and royal rights and thus provides a basis for the authority of Henry II Plantagenet, King of England. It provides solid financial institutions (the Court of the Exchequer) and officials closely dependent on the throne (the sheriffs).

Piacenza. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa places his old ally Cremona under ban. Cremona resists but then decides to capitulate, accepting the destruction of its fortified town and the reconstruction of Crema.

Crema. Frederick Barbarossa proceeds to solemnly install the Cremaschi on the site where their town originally stood. The operation is opposed by the Cremonese, so the entire operation is carried out with an armed escort. The spectacle is unusual: Barbarossa commands an army composed primarily of those who had been fighting until a few years earlier.

Frederick’s army, with reinforcements from Pavia, entered Milanese territory for the umpteenth time. Faced with Frederick’s reckless move, the Lombards decided to respond with equal boldness: they gave battle without waiting for the full mobilization of their forces.

Alexandria. Imperial troops begin to pound the city’s defenses. The Pavia troops complete a tunnel, allowing the Teutonic Knights to emerge in force inside the city perimeter. However, the defenders’ morale does not collapse. The Alexandrians fight, and the Teutonic Knights find themselves facing the entire city population, as well as the League’s army. Stones and arrows rain down from windows and rooftops; it is the dead of night and the attackers are unfamiliar with the terrain. Then suddenly the tunnel collapses, burying at least 200 Teutonic knights, condemning them to a gruesome death. The Germans who had already entered are now isolated and surrender. The Alexandrian commanders take advantage of the confusion to decisively attack a large siege tower, setting it alight. As the massive structure collapses, it overwhelms Teutonic soldiers and Genoese crossbowmen, and the Alexandrian forces retreat to the safety of the city with hundreds of prisoners. By dawn on Easter Sunday, the imperial defeat was evident to all. It was one of the worst defeats of Frederick’s army, which now had to avoid being caught between the forces of Alexandria and those of the League.

First siege of Aleppo, Syria by Saladin, the Crusaders resist

Genoa. Obizzo Malaspina and his son Morroello, likely supported by the League, led an army of 250 knights and 3,000 infantry, occupying Chiavari and Mount Sestri, threatening Genoa. Only in 1174 were they persuaded to desist and retreat, abandoning their ambitions on the Eastern Riviera.

Christian of Mainz leads a powerful alliance between Genoa, Lucca, Siena, and the Guidi counts. The alliance’s troops ravage the territory of rival Pisa. The conflict then stalls in a series of small, minor skirmishes. Christian then moves to attack the territories of Count Ildebrandino degli Aldobrandeschi, in the Grosseto area. But then the arrival of 150 Pisan knights restores the balance, and at this point Christian of Mainz abandons the field and marches on to Lazio. Neither diplomatic nor military skill has enabled the imperial legate to overcome the intricate rivalries of the Italian communes. The cities of Tuscany are on the verge of enormous demographic and cultural growth, preventing Christian of Mainz’s imperial forces from making a difference.

The Sunni Kurd Saladin (as he is known to Europeans – full name: Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub) unites Egypt and Syria, ending the Shiite dynasty of the Fatimids.

Henry II of England undertakes the conquest of Ireland.

Mongolia. Yesugei, father of Temujin (the future Genghis Khan), is invited to dinner by the leader of the rival clan and is poisoned. Temujin returns to assume leadership of the clan, but his authority is not recognized and the clan falls apart. It falls to the feisty mother to try to rally the remaining loyal members.

Settlement of the Aztecs in the Valley of Mexico.

The fifth floor of the Ghirlandina Tower in Modena is completed.

Frederick Barbarossa’s Germans left Pavia in great secrecy, without even notifying their Lombard allies. They headed toward the Susa Valley to return to Germany.

Pavia. Frederick Barbarossa pronounces a solemn condemnation of all the rebellious cities, with the exception of Cremona.

Milan. Archbishop Galdino della Sala resumes his office. Milan is finally reborn, and the triumph of Frederick II in 1162 is definitively erased.

The terrible Roman summer caught the imperial army unprepared. With the heat, the Anopheles mosquitoes that populated the Pontine Marshes south of Rome moved toward the city and carried the malaria bacillus. The first cases broke out on August 2nd. A week later, the first deaths occurred among Frederick Barbarossa’s Templars. The list of noble victims was impressive: Duke Frederick Rotherburg, Duke Welf the Younger of Bavaria, Theobald, brother of King Vladislaus of Bohemia, the Counts of Sulzbach, Halremonth, and Leipzig, the nobleman Ludolf of Dassel, Archbishop Daniel of Prague, and the bishops of Verdun, Regensburg, Basel, and Strasbourg, as well as Frederick’s chief advisor, Rainald of Dassel, Archbishop of Cologne. As many as 20% of the imperial army was fatally affected: between 2,000 and 3,000 dead. Morale plummeted. Many linked malaria to Frederick’s assault on St. Peter’s Basilica, as divine punishment.

Rome. First cases of malaria among Frederick’s troops.

Rome. Pope Paschal III, who was in Viterbo, was hastily recalled to Rome by Frederick Barbarossa and installed in St. Peter’s as antipope in opposition to Alexander III.

Tusculum, Lazio. The imperial army of Frederick Barbarossa and the Roman communal army come face to face. The Romans, outnumbered, initially challenge the imperials, but they eventually gain the upper hand. The Roman cavalry swerves and retreats, fleeing. The imperial victory is overwhelming: 2,000 Romans killed and 3,000 taken prisoner, or about a third of the forces involved. It is an unexpected triumph for Frederick, who sees the road to Rome open.

Piacenza also joins the League.

Lodi. It was the Lombard League’s first target. Lodi had always been a staunch ally of the Empire. Initially, the Milanese attempted to bring Lodi into the anti-Frederick camp, but faced with their firm refusal, they deployed before the city and began military operations. While Lodi was heavily bombed, the surrounding countryside was systematically pillaged. The Cremonese also built a pontoon bridge over the Adda River to block Lodi’s port and completely isolate it.

The consuls of Bergamo, Cremona, Brescia, and Mantua swore mutual aid in an unprecedented agreement destined to last fifty years. The general assemblies of each city solemnly ratified it with the oath of all adult citizens. The alliance aimed not to leave the Empire, but rather to remain loyal to it, providing every service expected of them until King Conrad, that is, 1152. All subsequent decisions, particularly those of Frederick, such as the Pacts of Roncaglia, were invalid.

Clandestine contacts, negotiations, and agreements revolutionized the political geography of northern Italy and created the first embryo of an entirely new alliance between cities, both in size, programmatic ambition, and the resounding results achieved in the end. This time, Cremona and Bergamo, old allies of the Empire but now exasperated by severe penalties, were also included. Then came Brescia and Mantua, followed by many others, including Lodi and Piacenza, and then Milan.

Frederick’s imperial army is marching towards Rome, and is spending the night near Castelnuovo Rangone.

The massive imperial army moves down from the Alps through the Camonica Valley, outflanking hostile Verona. The countryside is hostile, and Bergamo and Brescia, allies of Milan, are sacked.

Modena and Bologna renew their peace agreements, with an anti-imperial function.

Praise. The people of Milan also arrive, represented by a thousand men with 94 (or 100) banners. Finally, the Carroccio is made to bow before the Emperor. Finally, Frederick demands the surrender of 400 hostages.

Praise. 300 elected knights ask for forgiveness and kiss the Emperor’s foot. Among them is Master Guintelmo, who hands the sovereign the keys to the city.

Frederick imposed a long and humiliating surrender ceremony on Milan. The consuls in office presented themselves in Lodi bareheaded, surrendering their swords. Three days later, it was the turn of 300 elected knights to ask for forgiveness and kiss the Emperor’s foot. Among them was Master Guintelmo, who handed the keys to the city to the sovereign. Finally, on March 6th, the city’s people arrived, represented by a thousand men with 94 (or 100) banners. Finally, the Carroccio was made to bow before the Emperor. Finally, Frederick demanded the surrender of 400 hostages. But that wasn’t the end of it. On March 19th, the entire population was ordered to leave the city within eight days. On the 26th, the city was systematically destroyed, razed to the ground, with the exception of the churches. Destroying the greatest metropolis in the West was no easy feat. Fire was used, but even then it took eight days to achieve visible results. Finally, Frederick tenaciously tried to prevent the city’s reconstruction.

The imperial envoy, Chancellor Rainald of Dassel, held the office of Legate General, acting in the sovereign’s stead. At his side was Bishop Hermann of Verdun, Imperial Vicar with judicial duties. Frederick Barbarossa thus sought to maintain tight control over Northern Italy.

Corno Vecchio Castle. Frederick Barbarossa takes the castle and has the hands of all the citizens of Milan who defended it amputated, then throws them into prison. The same mutilation is inflicted on all those who attempt to bring crops into the city. Six Milanese prisoners are blinded and sent back to the city, led by a seventh knight blinded in one eye. The terrorist intent of the operation is clear.

Carcano, Brianza. The Milanese prepare a chariot and move to attack. The battle unfolds on a one-kilometer front. Frederick is likely caught by surprise, as the men who emerged from the chariot almost manage to reach the imperial camp. The battle becomes a furious melee. Meanwhile, on the opposite flank, the Milanese cavalry charge sweeps away the Novara and Monferrato contingents. The Milanese and Brescians triumph: 2,000 imperial troops retreat in disarray. A sudden summer storm interrupts the hostilities. But the Milanese quickly regain the initiative and descend on the undefended imperial camp, freeing dozens of prisoners and looting it. Only a few hundred men remain with Frederick and he experiences difficult times. The Swabian withdraws from the fight and retreats to Como. The Milanese thus discover that, thanks to well-coordinated actions, they are capable of facing the imperial cavalry in open battle.

Carcano, Brianza. A reckless Milanese operation leaves the Ambrosian troops exposed in the open. Frederick decides to take advantage of this. The imperial army swells on the march, reaching over 5,000 men, composed of 1,000 cavalry and the remainder infantry. The Milanese forces (plus 400 soldiers from Brescia and Piacenza) are equally matched but significantly inferior in cavalry.

Frederick and his army of several thousand Teutonic Knights set fire to and destroyed the Milanese countryside, cutting off supplies to Milan. But the Milanese, thanks to the ingenuity of Master Guintelmo, produced a hundred armored chariots, triangular in shape, with sickle blades mounted on the sides. The operation was a complete success: Frederick abandoned the field, retreating to Pavia.

Pope Alexander III excommunicates all Italian followers of Frederick and his pope Victor IV.

Synod of Pavia. Frederick’s envoy, Rainald of Dassel, declares Alexander deposed and enshrines Victor as Pope. Very few, however, recognize Victor as pope, and the emperor finds himself in a truly difficult situation.

Siege of Crema. After the inhabitants leave their homes unharmed, the city is razed to the ground and depopulated. Frederick claims victory, but the long and unexpected resistance of Crema, a small Italian town, against the immense imperial army puts him in difficulty and raises many concerns.

Siege of Crema. The Cremonese “cat” is set alight by the builders themselves so they can build a new siege tower in its place. Conrad of Bavaria and his men attempt to enter the walls by crossing the Marchisio Bridge. But this shouldn’t seem too reassuring, as many refuse to follow. A standard-bearer falls from the bridge and is captured. Others remain hanging, pulled inside the walls with grappling hooks, and taken prisoner. Conrad and his men remove their armor and throw themselves into the moat. The victory allows the Cremaschi to begin negotiations from a less unfavorable position. The inhabitants are granted permission to leave their homes unharmed.

Siege of Crema. The Cremonese, allies of the imperial besiegers, build a new war machine capable of hurling incendiary projectiles, consisting of barrels filled with resin, pitch, sulfur, oil, and lard. The “gatto” is heavily bombarded, but the besiegers manage to extinguish the flames and repair the damage. Morale among the Cremaschi is low, and a chief engineer, one Marchisio, flees the city to the enemy, allowing the besiegers to build a bridge to scale the walls.