John of Salisbury writes in his Metalogicon: “Bernard of Chartres said that we are dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants because we can see more and further than they: therefore not because of the sharpness of our sight or the stature of our body, but because we are carried up and lifted up by the greatness of the giants.”

Pope Adrian IV, a longtime friend of Manuel Comnenus and the cause of Milan, dies. The majority of cardinals choose the Sienese Cardinal of San Marco, Rolando Bardinelli, who takes the name Alexander III, while the minority chooses Ottaviano Monticelli, Cardinal of Santa Cecilia. The choice of Alexander III is a disaster for Frederick Barbarossa, as the pope is openly hostile to the Empire. Frederick therefore decides not to recognize the new pope, and instead has Ottaviano Monticelli crowned as Pope Victor IV.

Landriano, south of Milan. Frederick Barbarossa and his army take up position and attack the Ambrosian formation by surprise, returning from a victorious mission against the Empire’s common allies. In three consecutive attacks, the imperials, superior in number, defeat the Milanese. 600 are captured and at least 150 killed. This is a devastating blow for Milan: 20% of its cavalry has fallen into enemy hands, along with 400 horses.

Milan. The entire month is a succession of attacks and counterattacks. Meanwhile, the Empire’s allies, from Cremona, Pavia, and Lodi, engage in widespread looting and destruction of crops in the countryside. The attackers particularly target trees (olive and fruit trees) and vineyards, which would have taken years to replant.

Frederick Barbarossa’s imperial army moves to attack Milan. Trained by the defeat at Erchempert, Frederick carefully organizes the seven columns that attack the city separately. They number perhaps nearly 100,000 men, including Italian contingents, auxiliaries, and retainers. The Italians who swell Frederick’s ranks come from traditional allies Pavia and Cremona, but also, to a lesser extent, from Como, Lodi, and Bergamo. But distant cities such as Modena, Reggio, and Parma also provide reinforcements.

Frederick arrived in Lodi, which had been half-destroyed by the Milanese a few months earlier. With a solemn ceremony, he refounded the city not far from its original site, in a spot more sheltered from the Adda River, the same spot where it still stands today.

Frederick Barbarossa’s Bohemian auxiliary knights, passing through the Brescian countryside (Brescia was a traditional ally of the Empire), continued their plundering. But here they encountered resistance from the peasants, who captured, killed, and routed many of them, especially when they operated in isolated groups.

Frederick Barbarossa arrives in Venice, after descending from the Brenner Pass.

Lodi. The Milanese proceed with the systematic destruction of Lodi, setting fire to buildings and cutting down trees.

The Milanese descended on defenseless Lodi (which supported the Empire, but Barbarossa had by then returned to Germany). The people of Lodi fled during the night in the rain and, with a dramatic march, took refuge in the Cremona area, where a refugee camp was set up.

Frederick Barbarossa embarked on a long journey through the western regions of the Empire, to gather what was, for the time, a colossal army, so he could march into Italy, settle the issue with Milan once and for all, and then descend on Rome to bring the Pope into line and have himself crowned.

Brindisi. The forces of the Norman William I clash with the Byzantines led by John Doukas. The Normans win on all fronts. The Normans then proceed to reconquer the cities that had surrendered to the Byzantines. In Bari, the inhabitants are forced out, and then the city is razed to the ground, starting with the walls. Thus ends the important, yet short-lived, campaign in the West of the Byzantine Empire. Today we know it as the swan song of the Greek army, but at the time it sent shivers down the spines of several European nations.

Volpino Castle. The pro-imperial Bergamasques and the pro-Milanese Brescians fight over it. The Brescians attack. The Bergamasques are taken by surprise and scatter. Over 2,500 Bergamasques are taken prisoner, and hundreds of them are killed. The city has 10,000 inhabitants and has just lost nearly 3,000 adult males. A catastrophe. Bergamo immediately asks for peace. A thousand Bergamasque heads of families swear an oath. Milan triumphs.

Northern Italy. Frederick Barbarossa had returned to Germany a few weeks earlier, and already the Milanese were taking the initiative to reassert their control over the territory. They built a wooden bridge at Bernate under the helpless gaze of the Pavia people. Thanks to this, they soon established several bridgeheads west of the Ticino.

Ambush at the Chiuse. Beyond Verona, at the Adige River locks, a contingent of Veronese soldiers prepares an ambush for the knights of Frederick Barbarossa, who is returning to Germany. But they are betrayed by two Veronese nobles loyal to the Empire. The ambushed Veronese are captured, and 500 of them are hanged from trees, others mutilated with their noses, lips, or feet. For Frederick, the outcome of the expedition to Italy is uncertain: he was crowned by the Pope in Rome, but he has encountered incredible difficulties controlling the Italian communes, and the situation is far from consolidated.

Rome. With morale at rock bottom due to malaria, despite their victory and coronation, Frederick Barbarossa’s army begins a long and arduous march back to Germany.

Rome. The municipal infantry and knights move toward the Vatican, intending to do battle with the Pope and the newly crowned Frederick Barbarossa. Barbarossa has a mixed contingent of Teutonic and Lombard soldiers, while his cousin Henry the Lion supports him with a thousand Saxon and Bavarian knights. Henry, with his contingent, carries out a wide flanking maneuver, passing outside the Aurelian Walls, and attacks the citizens, who eventually disperse. Many are killed, others throw themselves into the Tiber, and approximately 300 surrender to Frederick. Of the latter, some are hanged as an example, and the others are freed after paying a large ransom. Frederick then stops in the Lazio countryside to consolidate his position, but the Roman heat arrives, and with it the Anopheles mosquitoes, carriers of malaria. Hundreds of Teutonic soldiers fall ill.

St. Peter’s, Rome. Frederick Barbarossa is finally crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Hadrian IV. Just before his coronation, Frederick is met by a delegation from the Roman Senate, who propose that he be investiture as emperor by the Roman Senate instead, rejecting the papal investiture. Frederick indignantly refuses: he sees the Italian communes as inferior peoples, lands to be conquered, as he explicitly states on that occasion. Moreover, very little remains of the enormous metropolis that had dominated the world for centuries: the mighty Aurelian Walls that have surrounded the city since 270 AD are now far removed from the tiny central town, which has only 15,000-20,000 inhabitants, compared to the millions of the classical era.

Anagni, near Rome. Frederick Barbarossa had to wait here to be received by Pope Adrian IV, who demanded the gift of the stirrup, with which the emperor was supposed to help the pontiff mount his horse, thus acknowledging himself as a servant of the Church. To appease the Pope, Frederick had the preacher Arnold of Brescia arrested, whom the Pope disliked for preaching a poor and reformed Church. Handed over to the prefect of Rome, he was hanged, his body burned, and his ashes scattered in the Tiber. All this to appease the Pope and allow Frederick’s coronation.

Lombardy. The Milanese forces, already victorious at Tortona, pursue the Pavia troops and defeat them heavily in open battle. The balance of power between the Empire and the Communes has been restored: without the presence of Frederick Barbarossa’s Teutonic Knights, his Lombard allies are unable to confront Milan.

Tortona. The Milanese, having gathered forces from Porta Ticinese and Porta Vercellina, arrived at forced marches to provide relief to Tortona, amid the jubilation of the exhausted defenders.

Tortona. The Pavians attack the city. The fighting is chaotic and fragments into countless clashes, but ultimately the Pavians must retreat and return to their city without having captured Tortona.

Tortona. While Frederick and his Teutonic troops were already in the Piacenza area, the Milanese under Sarezzano entered the ruins of Tortona, where they joined forces with about fifty local fighters. The Ambrosian troops then regained possession of the city, and the Pavia troops alone lacked the courage to give them battle. The Milanese began rebuilding the city and its defenses.

After the drinking water sources were poisoned with sulfur, the city of Tortona, an ally of Milan, surrendered on condition to the besieging army of Frederick Barbarossa. The inhabitants obtained the right to leave the city center unharmed, taking with them what they could, and then the Teutons and their allies from Pavia looted and destroyed what remained. The siege lasted over six weeks: Frederick realized that the Italian municipalities, even the smallest, would give him a hard time…

Rome. After the very brief pontificate of Anastasius IV (who succeeded Eugene III), the Englishman Nicholas Breakspear becomes Pope, taking the name Adrian IV. He vigorously takes charge and orders the Romans to expel Arnold of Brescia, a preacher who had arrived in the city immediately after the Pope had left, preaching a poor and reformed Church. The Romans submit.

Henry II Plantagenet becomes king of England, accumulating large territories in France

Second Crusade. Conrad III carries out the operation with his young son Frederick (later Barbarossa). The Latins reach Jerusalem and make the mistaken decision to attack Damascus, which, however, does not fall. Conrad III ultimately has to re-embark at Acre bound for Constantinople, leaving the crusade unfinished. The Mediterranean dream of unifying the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, however, remains deeply imprinted on the young Frederick, who will cultivate it throughout his life. However, he must first subjugate the Italian cities, the only ones capable of providing the financial resources necessary for the task.

Roger II, after having unified Sicily and the South in the New Kingdom of Sicily, also conquered the Tunisian coast and Tripoli in Libya.

Documented transit of the comet that would later be named Halley’s Comet centuries later. Its passage is immortalized in the Eadwine Psalter manuscript, preserved at Trinity College, Cambridge.

Municipality of Rome. The newly formed civic assembly, called the Senate in honor of the classical era, appointed Giordano Pierleoni as city rector.

The new Pope, Lucius II, assembles a large army from his holdings in the Lazio countryside and calls upon it to attack the Capitoline Hill to regain control. The Commune of Rome, however, has fortified it and repel the attack.

Rome. Pope Innocent II dies. He is succeeded by Lucius II. He is always supported by the Frangipane family, and always opposed by the Pierleoni family.

The citizens of the Municipality of Rome occupy the Capitoline Hill, where Pope Innocent II resides. The Municipality is supported by the Pierleoni family, while the Pope is supported by the Frangipane family. This is the birth certificate of the Municipality of Rome. The city, in fact, establishes a civic assembly, based on the Capitoline Hill.

War between Tivoli and Rome: the Romans return in force and defeat their rivals in open battle. Tivoli requests the intervention of Pope Innocent II to negotiate terms of surrender. The pontiff grants Tivoli favorable terms, provoking Roman resentment.

War between Tivoli and Rome: a first siege of Tivoli by the Romans fails due to a victorious sortie by the defenders.

Great Lakes Region, North America. Gradual emergence of the League of Five Iroquois Nations. Corn was cultivated in Ontario as early as 1100 AD, in what would become the Attiwandaronk territory. In the centuries immediately following, the three sisters (corn, beans, and squash) would assume an increasingly important role in the subsistence of Iroquois communities, although hunting, fishing, and foraging would not disappear. Then, in the Late Owasco Period (1230–1375), people began to move away from their old seasonal settlements along the waterways to settle in palisade-enclosed towns occupied year-round. Many of these towns had 2,000 inhabitants. There is also evidence and testimony of violent episodes of torture, ceremonial sacrifice, and cannibalism. Note the Iroquois’ propensity for sustained political debate, their particular emphasis on individual freedoms (the freedom to stray, to disobey, to experiment with new social forms), and their skepticism toward revealed religion—all traits shared by other Native North American communities, which would influence the European Enlightenment. In other words, not only did the indigenous North Americans manage to circumvent the agricultural trap that led to the rise of a centralized state, but in doing so they also developed a political sensibility that would have a significant influence on the thinkers of the European Enlightenment. And these ideas remain with us today, often without us realizing their true origins. Consider, however, that among the first European scholars to come into contact with these Native North American principles—the Jesuits, for example—the philosophical position was that they were simply opposed to the very principle of human freedom. These were the European ideas of the time.

War breaks out between Tivoli and Rome for control of Lazio.

Transoxiana, Central Asia. Battle of Qatvan: A coalition led by the last notable Seljuk ruler, Sanjar, is soundly defeated by an equally powerful army of Qida, Turks, and Mongols led by Yelu Dashi. The Qidans will occupy the entire area.

Indian king Parakkramabahu revives Buddhist worship and re-establishes the rule of Southern Buddhism or Theravada

Stephen of Blois, king of England

friar named John of Worcester, while studying the Sun, drew a diagram of the solar surface with two large black spots on it. Two days later, 14,000 km away in Korea, an astronomer described the sky as covered with deep red vapor. They had actually described large sunspots, caused by extremely strong and exceptional solar flares, which trigger aurora borealis even at relatively low latitudes.

The Crusaders and Venetians conquer Tyre, securing all the ports north of Egypt for the Christians.

Setting of the book “The Pillars of the Earth” by Ken Follet

Jaffa, now Israel. The Venetian fleet under the command of Doge Dominico Michiel arrives in Jaffa, attacked by the Egyptians from land and sea. The Doge’s galley rams the ship carrying the Egyptian admiral, capsizing it. The Venetian victory is resounding, and the victorious fleet then heads for Egypt, where it captures several merchant ships laden with gold, pepper, cinnamon, and other spices. Then, despite the vast booty already acquired, the Venetians join the Crusaders in besieging Tyre, which falls in 1124. The ports north of Egypt are thus all in Christian hands for a generation.

The White Ship sank with illustrious personalities on board, including the son and heir of King Henry of England.

The German monk Theophilus wrote De Diversis Artibus, rightly considered the first technological treatise of the Middle Ages.

Modena Cathedral: the sarcophagus of Saint Geminiano is opened in the presence of Pope Paschal II and Countess Matilda of Canossa. This is the first time since the saint’s death in 398, a full seven centuries earlier!

Consecration of Modena Cathedral in the presence of Pope Paschal II and Countess Matilda of Canossa

The body of San Geminiano is brought to the Cathedral of Modena, just completed

Venice. The walled Arsenal is built, a gigantic shipyard and weapons factory. It will quickly become the largest manufacturing facility in all of Christendom and will remain so for several centuries. Venetian naval power will dominate the Mediterranean for another seven centuries.

The communal movement takes hold in Northern France and the Netherlands.

In Christianity (still Catholicism), there is a promotion of women. The cult of the Virgin is recognized as a turning point in Christian spirituality, emphasizing the redemption of sinful women through Mary, the new Eve. This shift can be seen even in the cult of Mary Magdalene, which also began in the 12th century.

Northern Italy. Italian cities have a reputation for being rebellious and resistant to imperial rule (the Holy Roman Empire). The situation is most acute in Lombardy, and the heart of the problem for Frederick Barbarossa lies in Milan, one of the largest cities in the West, with over 50,000 inhabitants, whereas most major Western European cities have populations of around 10,000.

Universities are flourishing in Europe

Netherlands. The Oude Delft Canal is dug, which will give the city of Delft its name.

Venice receives concessions and commercial privileges in all the Crusader domains in the Eastern Mediterranean, granted by Godfrey of Bouillon, in exchange for the support of the Venetian fleet in the Crusader attack on Jaffa (or Jaffa, today Tel Aviv).

Jaffa, now Israel. The Venetian fleet supports Godfrey of Bouillon’s crusaders in their attack on Jaffa (now Tel Aviv).

Mississippi Plain and the eastern coast of North America, now the Eastern United States. Bean cultivation arrives from Mexico, much later than in Mexico due to the barrier of North America’s deserts. And even later than in Eurasia. Thus, the Mexican trinity of corn, beans, and squash is completed, allowing the Mississippi population to experience a population boom, the so-called Mississippi Florescence. It should be noted, however, that these crops are not even remotely comparable to the yield and nutritional value of wheat and barley, and nuts and fiber are completely lacking, as are draft animals of any kind (except for sled dogs in the Arctic regions of North America, but not in Mississippi).

At the court of the Norman king Roger II, al-Idrisi used the Arabic translation of Ptolemy’s Geography to make some improvements to the calculations.

The seabird, the auk, is present in millions of individuals from Iceland to Newfoundland, from Norway to Italy, and even Florida. In Scandinavia, it is regularly eaten for dinner, being an easy prey for the local inhabitants. In the 17th century, its numbers were in clear decline. By 1800, it was considered extinct in North America. The last surviving pair was killed on Eldey Island, Iceland, in June 1844.

The Crusaders take Jerusalem

Pope Urban II uses a request for help from the Byzantine Empire as an excuse to launch the Crusades. Jerusalem falls that same year, and the Crusaders dominate for a century.

Construction of the new Modena Cathedral begins on the site of the existing cathedral. Architect: Lanfranco, Sculptor: Wiligelmo. The construction of the Cathedral and Modena begins.