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McCormick invents the automatic reaper in the United States. Mass production begins in Chicago in 1847, which at the time was a small Midwestern town with only 17,000 inhabitants.

André Marie Ampere inaugurates Cybernetics (the science of control)

Siberia. Dmitry Mendeleev is born. He is the youngest of Maria Mendeleeva’s 14 children. Her husband, having gone blind, receives a meager pension. Maria reopens the family glassworks and manages it, the only woman in the family. The factory is then destroyed by fire. As

China. Lord Palmerston’s diplomatic mission (the third ever from the British crown). Naval officer Napier is sent. He contracts malaria during the voyage and dies. But before dying, Napier notes the presence of a rocky outcrop called Hong Kong, almost uninhabited, which could make an

Italy. After dissolving Young Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Europe, an international organization dedicated to the affirmation of democracy and the most important, yet unfulfilled, nationalities such as Germany, Italy, and Poland.

Italy. Following the end of the Revolutionary Movement, Mazzini dissolved Young Italy, only to reform it a few years later, in 1839, in London.

Francis IV built the Foro Boarium in Modena “for the honor and convenience of the faithful farmers,” but they did not like it, and the building remained empty. The large structure was subsequently used for a variety of purposes. Today it houses the University’s Faculty

Abraham Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature. Shortly thereafter, he worked to move the state capital north to Springfield, away from the predominantly agricultural area. Near Springfield, a small town called Chicago was already growing.

Abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire.

The prestigious award of the Medal of Military Valor is created

Tierra del Fuego. Jemmy Button, of the Yamana tribe, had been “purchased” here in exchange for a glass button, and for this reason he was called “Button.” He was brought to England, dressed and educated as an Englishman. We know this story because Charles Darwin

England. The Factory Act prohibits children under 9 from working, and limits the length of the working day for those under 14.

Michael Faraday, from some experiments, intuits that the concept of field is necessary, which is alien to the foundations of Newtonian physics, based on particles and forces.

Sadi Carnot, son of Lazare Carnot, dies of cholera. All his personal effects are burned, including most of his notes. His work, however, will be noticed several years later by William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) and Rudolf Clausius, who will draw inspiration from it to formulate

Evariste (son of Nicholas-Gabriel) Galois, French mathematician, is killed in a duel for reasons of love; The night before his death, he spent it by candlelight, writing down his unpublished mathematical discoveries, including the solution to solvable fifth-degree equations and a method for determining which

England. The first DC electric motor was invented by William Sturgeon. A few years later, in 1837, Thomas Davenport in the United States invented the first DC commutator electric motor. He powered it with batteries, which were quite scarce at the time. And there was

Construction of Manchester’s sewers begins; over 600 km of sewers will be built in 30 years; a huge undertaking for the time.

England. Jeremy Bentham, a proponent of teaching science and technology in secondary education, to the detriment of Greek and Latin, dies. He and his colleagues founded University College London, the first English school not to require a religious exam for admission.

England. The Great Reform Bill greatly expands Parliament’s electorate. It is passed into law just weeks before the death of Jeremy Bentham, its great supporter.

Charles Babbage built his Analytical Engine, programmable with punched cards. It was a partial version of an all-purpose mechanical digital computer. A complete version was never built, given its complexity. It had memory, a punched-card program, and the ability to perform conditional branching. All mechanically.

The ambitious and capable Ada Lovelace, at just 17 years old, after having tried in vain to convince Babbage to be her tutor, succeeds with Augustus De Morgan.

Silvio Pellico published his memoirs, “My Prisons,” which enjoyed great popularity and had a significant influence on the Risorgimento movement. Metternich admitted that the book had damaged Austria more than a lost battle. Pellico also wrote the Memoirs after his release, a text now lost.

Frenchman Jean-François Champollion died at just 41. A few years earlier, he had published the book “Precis du systeme hieroglyphique”: thanks to the decoding of the Rosetta Stone, for the first time in 14 centuries it was finally possible to read the history of the

London. A cholera epidemic breaks out in the city. It arrived from the Ganges River in India. It is thought to spread through miasmas (bad air), corpses, and rotting vegetables.

Charles Darwin sailed on the Beagle and visited the Galapagos. After his return, he began compiling his famous treatise on the origin of species; he never set foot outside England again.

Charles Darwin set sail from Davenport aboard the Beagle, a ten-gun brigantine commanded by Fitz Roy. The mission’s purpose was to complete surveys of the coasts of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, Chile, Peru, and several Pacific islands, and to make chronometric observations.

Michael Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction

The Swede Nils Sefstrom discovered vanadium and gave it the alternative name of the goddess Freyja: Vanadis, the Dis of the Vanir, meaning the lady of the fair people, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Vanadium had actually already been discovered in 1801 by Manuel

Michael Faraday wraps a copper wire around an iron ring to demonstrate electromagnetic induction for the first time. This would be the basis for a new Industrial Revolution, thanks to the development of electric motors, robots, power plant alternators, modern trains, and electric cars.

Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana, a Turin mathematician and astronomer, created the Universal Calendar, a mechanical machine that calculated the monthly and weekly positions of each day from the birth of Christ to 4000 AD, as well as the lunar phases and the tides.

Charles Darwin finds his way: in the spring he begins studying geology and in the fall receives an offer to sail on the Beagle. In the preceding years, he had not had very clear ideas: with an early mania for collecting and a strong inclination

Scotsman Robert Brown was the first to observe the nucleus of a cell.

James Cleland conducts an experiment in County Down, Ireland, trying to acclimatize snakes (6) on the island, which was devoid of them. The experiment gives rise to all sorts of superstitions, including the prediction that the end of the world was imminent.

United States. Musician Gaetano Carusi and his sons appeal to Congress for a $1,000 reimbursement so they can return to Italy. Carusi and his band had been hired in 1812 to play aboard the USS Chesapeake (which fought in the War of 1812 against the

In Italy, Mazzini founded Young Italy, a cadre party composed primarily of young professionals, students, and intellectuals. It spread to Milan, Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Tuscany, Romagna, and Nice, reaching 60,000 members. However, it remained almost absent in Southern Italy, where the Carbonari movement prevailed.

Virginia, United States. The slave Nat Turner, after taking a solar eclipse as a sign to act, leads a rebellion in Southampton County that results in the killing of 60 white men. He is captured and executed.

Revolutionary riots in Modena (Carboneria). Execution of Ciro Menotti.

Modena. Despite numerous pleas from various quarters for a commutation of the sentence, Duke Francis IV adamantly carries out the death sentence of Ciro Menotti in the Citadel, along with that of notary Vincenzo Borrelli, guilty of drafting the act of forfeiture of Francis IV

Modena. Duke Francis IV holds the trial of Ciro Menotti, which ends with him being sentenced to death by hanging. Other conspirators (Luigi Adami, Giuseppe Brevini, and Antonio Giacomozzi) are initially sentenced to death, a sentence later commuted to 12 years in prison by Francis

Modena. Duke Francesco IV returns to Modena after fleeing to Mantua (Austrian), taking with him the prisoner Ciro Menotti.

Northern Italy. The Austrian army intervenes in several cities to quell revolutionary uprisings and reinstate the regents. France does not react.

Modena. An attempt to help Ciro Menotti escape fails.

Modena. After gathering his weapons, Menotti gathered about forty conspirators in his home, not far from the Ducal Palace, to organize the revolt. Francis IV, however, in an abrupt about-face undoubtedly forced upon him by the Austrian government, decided to withdraw his support for Menotti’s

Modena. Ciro Menotti organizes the uprising down to the smallest detail, seeking popular support and the approval of the nascent liberal circles that are proliferating across the peninsula.

Bologna. The city’s elite attempts a second revolt (the first in 1828) against the city’s misgovernment, with the support of the influential Bolognese notable Count Giuseppe Rangone.

The second act of the Italian Risorgimento begins (the first was 1820-21): in Modena, a young liberal businessman, Ciro Menotti, under the illusion of having Duke Francis IV on his side, organizes a daring conspiracy calling for the independence, unity, and freedom of Italy, with

Italy. These years were the heart of the Risorgimento and a period of general political growth, both moderate and democratic, both in Italy and Europe, of uncertainty about the future of capitalism and the bourgeoisie itself, of openness to different solutions, only one of which,

Berlin. Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel dies of cholera.

Chicago, Illinois, is just a military outpost with a few fur traders, with wolves roaming the shacks at night. It has a total population of 12 families. In 30 years, the population will surpass 100,000 and become the world’s largest breadbasket, surpassing Odessa in Ukraine.

South America. A month before his death from tuberculosis, Bolivar wrote a final, disconsolate letter: “I have governed for twenty years and have drawn few certainties from it: 1) South America is ungovernable for us; 2) waging a revolution is like plowing the sea; 3)

French conquest of Algeria. It dragged on for several decades due to systematic and exhausting guerrilla warfare.

Revolutionary movements in Europe

Dr. Miles Compound Extract of Tomato, sold as a medicine and patented, is actually the first Ketch-Up

France. Reigns Louis-Philippe I, known as the Citizen King, of the Orleans dynasty.

French conquest of Algeria.

A revolt breaks out in Brussels that will lead to Belgium’s independence from the Netherlands.

Paris. A popular uprising overthrows the Bourbons and replaces them with a new ruler: Louis-Philippe of Orleans. This event sparks revolutionary movements throughout Europe and marks the end of the Restoration period.

Capture of Algiers by French troops; colonization begins

The game of squash was invented at Harrow School in England.

Abraham Lincoln’s family settles in Illinois. Lincoln has already lost his mother, worn out by the hardships and privations of frontier life. The strong and generous Abraham earns his living as a farmhand.

In the 1830s, British officer Henry Rawlinson was shown an enormous stele with inscriptions in cuneiform (rediscovered in 1618 by the Spanish ambassador to Persia), Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. He enlisted a Kurdish boy to hang the giant stele and copy the entire text,

First fossil iguanodon skeletons discovered

Industrial Revolution: Richard Roberts’s Automatic Spinning Machine

Arizona, Mexico. Birth of Geronimo, future chief of the Chirikawa Apache tribe.

Hungarian Janos Bolyai rediscovers hyperbolic geometry, independently of Gauss.

Venezuela. Bolivar issues the Organic Decree of Dictatorship, establishing that there will be no democracy and no rule of law in South America under him.

The Dutch company Van Houten invented the screw press, which improved the chocolate-making process. The press crushed the fermented roasted beans, forcing the chocolate butter out. The remaining chocolate, free of its fats, was finely ground into a powder and drunk as hot chocolate. A

Beryllium is synthesized for the first time. The mineral from which it is extracted had been discovered thirty years earlier by Vauquelin, who analyzed crushed beryllium crystals. The essential constituents are silica, or silicon dioxide, found in sand, quartz, and amethyst, and alumina, an aluminum

New York trapper Jedediah Smith travels across the Mohave Desert in Southern California; his journey across the Great West is punctuated by Indian attacks and an encounter with a grizzly bear, which leaves him scalped and an ear; he dies in 1831 at the age

Abolition of the military order of the Janissaries, which had become too powerful, inconvenient, and invasive in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire.

Bernardt Riemann, in his short life, introduced a multitude of ideas into mathematics, including Riemann Surfaces

Nicolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky rediscovers, independently of Gauss, hyperbolic geometry

Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Adrien-Marie Legendre independently prove Fermat’s Last Theorem for the case n=5, based on the method of Mrs. Sophie Germain

Russia. Immediately after the death of Tsar Alexander I, a group of officers, the so-called Decembrists, attempted to overthrow the absolute monarchy and establish a constitutional regime or even a republic. This group included officers such as Mikhail Orlov and Alexander Volkonsky. Major heroes of

Francis IV, Duke of Modena, founded a Noble Military Academy, later the Estense Military Academy (1821-1848), successor to the Ducal Academy established by Francis III d’Este in 1757. The Institute of Pioneer Mathematical Cadets, founded in Modena in 1824 by Francis IV, was also located

Venezuela. Bolivar’s forces fought the decisive battle at Carabobo, south of Puerto Cabello. 6,500 republicans fought against 5,000 royalists loyal to Spain. The subsequent victory, in which British volunteers played a key role, left Bolivar with a vast territory he called Gran Colombia. It included

Bishop Germanos of Patras raises the Greek flag over the monastery of Agias Lavras in the Peloponnese: the Greek War of Independence begins.

Kingdom of Piedmont. The rebellion of the garrison of Alessandria leads to the abdication of King Victor Emmanuel I, who entrusts the regency to Charles Albert.

Aluminum is isolated for the first time. It will revolutionize the world.

London has 1 million inhabitants: it is the largest city in the world.