South America. Bolivar’s forces have now driven the last pro-Spanish monarchist forces out of Gran Colombia, which includes New Grenada, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, and a small portion of Amazonian Brazil.

Milan. The Stelvio postal road, a vital link to the Habsburg capital, Vienna, has been completed.

Frenchman Jean-François Champollion publishes the book “Precis du systeme hieroglyphique”: thanks to the decoding of the Rosetta Stone, for the first time in 14 centuries it is finally possible to read the history of the pharaohs in hieroglyphics.

Turkish forces massacre 7,000 people in Kassos, Greece

Non-Euclidean geometry was discovered simultaneously and independently by the Hungarian Janos Bolyai and the Russian Nikolai Lobachevsky.

Jean Baptist Joseph Fourier publishes “Theorie analytique de la chaleur,” Fourier’s theory of frequency analysis. It had been severely opposed by his mathematical colleagues for several years. And for good reason, since series with infinite terms were treacherous beasts that had only just begun to be explored.

Claude Louis Navier developed a system of partial differential equations capable of describing the flow of a viscous (non-turbulent) fluid. Twenty years later, Stokes also published articles on the same topic. This was the birth of the Navier-Stokes equation, which also forms the basis of modern CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics).

Turkish forces massacre 25,000 people on the island of Chios, Greece.

Alessandro Manzoni writes Fermo and Lucia

Saint Helena Island. Date of Napoleon’s death. An analysis conducted in 1961 by Sten Forshufvud, a Swedish toxicologist, on Napoleon’s hair samples discovered elevated levels of arsenic. This supported the hypothesis that the emperor had been poisoned. A sample of the gold and green wallpaper from Napoleon’s rooms, made by Scheele at the time from copper arsenide or copper acetoarsenate, was then found and analyzed in 1982. The article published in Nature in 1982 confirmed the presence of arsenic in the wallpaper, which would provide the reason for the high levels of arsenic in the hair. Subsequent analyses (2008) found similar levels of arsenic in the hair of his wife Josephine and other family members: arsenic was found everywhere at the time…

Napoleon dies in exile. Alessandro Manzoni dedicated this ode, entitled “The 5th of May,” to Napoleon Bonaparte: a great general, a great emperor, a great man. After the defeat at Waterloo, Sir Hudson Lowe ordered Napoleon to be exiled. On October 16, 1815, he was sent to the island of Saint Helena, where he spent the last years of his life, far from his loved ones, his army, and above all, “his” France. Only twenty years after his death, his remains were transported to Paris and interred at the Hôpital des Invalides.

Jean François Champillion deciphers the Rosetta Stone: it is a decree of priests gathered in Memphis in favor of Ptolemy V Epiphanius, a writing translated into hieroglyphics, demotic and Greek.

Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge isolates the active ingredient in coffee: caffeine.

Australia. 32 years after the arrival of the British, 84% of the island continent’s population is still made up of convicts or former convicts, and the country remains heavily dependent on imports from England.

Cadiz. A major mutiny erupts among the 14,000 men who are to embark to support the royalist forces against Bolivar in Venezuela. The tide is turning in Bolivar’s favor, and he seeks help from the great powers, and, unexpectedly, finds it in Great Britain. Approximately 7,000 volunteers join Bolivar’s ranks, including many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars.

The Neapolitan sovereign Ferdinand I announces the granting of the Constitution after the popular insurrection of Minichini, Pepe, Morelli and Silvati.

Abbot Luigi Minichini (priest, poisoner, and Carbonaro), tired of hesitation, sparks an insurrection in Nola, Avellino. Waving the sect’s tricolor flag (red, black, and blue), he and his twenty followers join deserting military units led by Morelli and Silvati. At this point, Guglielmo Pepe takes the lead in the revolt. For King Ferdinand I, this is too much, and he relents, announcing the granting of the Constitution on July 6th.

In Southern Italy, the two Carbonari lieutenants Michele Morelli and Giuseppe Silvati attempt a military revolt.

Spain. A group of liberal military men mutinies and demands that the government restore the Napoleonic Constitution, which had been repealed in 1812. The Spanish uprising sparks a series of revolts across Europe, known as the Revolutions of 1820-21.

Arkansas. A Cherokee Indian named Sequoyah invented Cherokee writing. This is a well-documented example, as it occurred in the modern era and is therefore of great interest. Sequoyah was a blacksmith, and initially, before 1810, for convenience in keeping accounts, he felt the need to draw a picture of each customer, and then draw circles and lines to remember each one’s debts. Around 1810, he decided to invent a writing system for the Cherokee language, that is, a graphic representation of the Cherokee language, which existed only in spoken form. He began with his drawings, but abandoned them because they were too laborious. He then began to invent a system of different symbols for each word, but after a few thousand, he realized that this too was too laborious. Then he decided to use symbols for each sound that occurs in different words (what we call syllables). He began with 200 signs, which he then reduced to 85. He thus invented an alphabet that was later much admired, suitable for the Cherokee language and sounds, and an excellent example of the birth of a writing system through “idea diffusion”.

The Carbonari, an Italian Masonic society founded in Southern Italy during the Napoleonic era and quickly spread to Central and Northern Italy, has approximately half a million registered members. It was officially suppressed in 1815 but continued to exist and operate among former Napoleonic officials, thanks to the personal connections maintained by its former members. Many priests are also Carbonari.

The known world extends across all continents except Antarctica.

The Democratic Party wins the presidency of the United States with Virginian James Monroe with 231 electoral votes out of 232.

Reggio Emilia. Angelo Secchi is born. Father Pietro Angelo Secchi (Reggio nell’Emilia, June 28, 1818 – Rome, February 26, 1878) was an Italian Jesuit, astronomer, and geodesist, the founder of astronomical spectroscopy. He was the director of the Collegio Romano Observatory and the first to classify stars into spectral classes.

Berzelius publishes a table of relative atomic weights

New Zealand. Musket Wars. One of New Zealand’s Maori tribes, the Ngapuhi, adopts muskets, purchasing them from European settlers. Violent battles quickly erupt between the Maori tribes, and by 1833, all those who survived the Musket Wars had fully adopted firearms.

Russian general and scientist Alexander Dimitrevich Zassiadko develops rockets with powder fuel, capable of a range of 2670 meters

Due to the eruption of the Tambora volcano on the Indonesian island of Sumbawa, global temperatures dropped by one degree, summers in many European countries did not heat up and the year will remain in memory as “the year without summer”.

Thebes, near Luxor, Egypt. Part of the gigantic bust of Ramesses II is successfully removed by circus performer Giovanni Battista Belzoni, using a hydraulic system and hundreds of men to lift the bust (almost 3 meters tall and weighing 7 tons) onto wooden logs and transfer it to a barge on the Nile. Napoleon had attempted this several years earlier, in 1798, but failed, breaking the statue into two pieces, one weighing 7 tons and the other 13 tons. A large hole, about 10 cm in diameter, remains in the statue, likely from that attempt. Consider that during the time of the ancient Egyptians, they had transported the entire 20-ton bust there, likely using techniques similar to those used by Giovanni Battista Belzoni.

Georgia, Caucasus. After the Battle of Borodino, won by Russian General Yermolov, the same general was appointed to administer the new territory.

The American Federalist Party was defeated in 16 of the 19 states. Within four years, it would disappear completely from the political scene.

China. Lord Amherst’s diplomatic mission (the second ever from the British crown). Disagreements over protocol (the Chinese considered the British subjects) escalate into a full-blown brawl between the British envoys and the court mandarins. The mission is abruptly dismissed.

The Kingdom of Naples took the name of Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, but the peripheral officials, intendants and judges, remained those appointed during the period of Napoleonic domination.

The Bohemian mathematician and theologian Bernard Bolzano introduced the concept of limit, which was, however, recognized and extended by Weistrass only in 1870.