Bubonic plague in Europe: 30 million deaths (1/3 of the European population). The Yrsiania pestis bacterium (originating in China and India) arrived via Genoese sailors from Crimea; there, the Genoese were attacked by besiegers who, decimated by the plague, catapulted the corpses into the city; the first port where the plague landed was probably Messina.

Trade with China and the East in general offered a rapid transit route for the bubonic plague. This time, it would strike much more severely than a millennium earlier, due to differing hygienic conditions and the greater concentration of people in a small space.

The Tatars besiege Kaffa in Crimea, a Genoese possession, and catapult the bodies of their plague victims into the besieged city. This is perhaps the episode that will bring the plague to Europe. It is one of the first horrific acts of bacteriological warfare.

In commercial or military vessels, approximately one sailor per 10 tons of displacement is required. For example, a Venetian cocca: 240 tons with 20 adult sailors and 8 apprentices, by law. In the 13th century, a lateen-rigged ship was 240 tons with 50 men. In the 17th century, the ratio returned to one man per 5 tons in English Mediterranean shipping, but the increase was to defend against pirates.

Battle of Crécy-en-Ponthieu: during the Hundred Years’ War. It was a great success for English longbows, but also the first limited use of cannons, and firearms in general, by European armies. The English Earls of Derby and Salisbury happened to be present six years earlier in Spain at the Battle of Tarifa, where the Arabs used cannons against the Spanish. Impressed by what they saw, upon their return home they had cannons introduced into their armies.

Battle of Crecy-en-Ponthieu: During the Hundred Years’ War, King Edward III’s small English army annihilates a vastly larger French force in Normandy; this is the first use of longbows by the English, who mow down the French cavalry before they even come into contact with them; the battle marks the end of chivalry and the beginning of England’s rise as a world power.

King Edward III’s English army is routed in France

King Edward III assembles in Portsmouth the largest fleet England has ever seen: over a thousand ships, and sets sail for France.

Hundred Years’ War: Breton-Norman Phase

China. Disastrous flooding of the Yellow River significantly diverted its course.

Fourteen million people live in Germany. In 1200, there were eight million.

France has 21 million inhabitants. In 1200, there were 12 million.

Firearms had not yet reached the European kingdoms, but the English Earls of Derby and Salisbury happened to be present in Spain at the Battle of Tarifa, where the Arabs used cannons against the Spanish. Impressed by what they saw, upon their return home they had cannons introduced into their armies, which were then immediately used against the French at the Battle of Crécy just six years later.

Bologna, a free municipality or under papal rule

Genoa. Simone Boccanegra, first doge (perpetual)

King Edward of England invades northwestern France with his army

The Church of Sant’Agostino in Modena is founded

Hundred Years’ War between England and France (with the occupation of part of French territory by the English); a fundamental role in the battles on French soil is played by British archers: typically 3,000 archers shooting 20 arrows per minute represent a mortal danger for the French cavalry

Modena. Marquis Obizzo d’Este enters the city, at the request of the Modenese themselves. The Este family’s rule over the city begins.

Verona. Obizzo d’Este, Alberto and Mastino della Scala, and Guido and Manfredo Pio meet. Modena is ceded by the Pio family to the Este family in exchange for Carpi and the castle of San Felice. The Este dominion over Modena will last until the unification of Italy.

Ilkhanid Ulus, Middle East. Khan Abu Sa’id, a descendant of Genghis Khan, is poisoned by his jealous wife Baghdad Khatun. Thus ends the Ilkhanid dynasty.

Modena. Hundreds more of the Emperor’s Germans enter the walls, loot, and assault.

Modena. 800 of the Emperor’s Germans enter the city.

Modena surrenders to the Emperor, who sends strong military contingents to recover the territories lost in 1326 and 1327. The soldiers of Louis the Bavarian (whom the peasants call “Gaburos”) are welcomed as liberators, but as soon as they arrive they commit raids and incursions to wreak havoc on Modena society.

Ming Dynasty in China: defeats the Mongols, moves the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and builds the Forbidden City. A meritocratic society is gradually established, with excellent education and a drive for innovation. Trade with Europe, seen as a source of silver, expands.

Master Cecco and all copies of his essay “Armillary Sphere” are burned at the stake by the Inquisition

Louis the Bavarian, newly elected emperor in Rome (John XXII attempted to oppose him but lacked the means to do so), had the antipope Nicholas V elected, recognized only by the hard core of Italian and German Ghibellinism. Shortly before, the pope had attempted to elect an anti-emperor…

France. Valois dynasty with 13 rulers: Philip VI the Fortunate, John II the Good, Charles V the Wise, Charles VI the Beloved then the Mad, Charles VII the Victorious, Louis XI the Prudent, Charles VIII the Affable, Louis XII the Father of the People or the Crusader, Francis I the Father of Letters and the Arts, Henry II the Gallant, Francis II, Charles IX, Henry III.

Setting of the book “World Without End” by Ken Follet

Modena. Peace with the Papal States is proclaimed. The city attempts to return to normalcy. The “Statuta civitatis anno 1327 reformata” (Reformed City Statutes of 1327) are also published. These were left unchanged by the Este family for about a century. They transcend the institutional structure of the previous decades and portray a society certainly more orderly than under Passerino Bonacolsi. Papal rule in Modena, however, lasted only a single year.

Modena. Duke Passerino was forced to flee Modena, and on June 5th, the remaining Ghibelline garrison was forced to retreat. The expulsion of the Mantuan tyrant was celebrated with days of revelry. Modena surrendered to the Papal legate, according to some chroniclers, in exchange for 15,000 gold florins.

Modena. Duke Passerino foils a first conspiracy hatched by Tommasino da Gorzano. The repression is brutal: the leaders are beheaded, and the remaining conspirators are pincered (that is, their flesh is torn with red-hot irons) and then hanged from the battlements of Porta Redecocca. But Passerino’s days are numbered: Guelph military pressure increases, as does popular discontent, tired of years of inconclusive warfare and, what’s more, with the bubonic plague wreaking havoc. Passerino is forced to flee Modena, and on June 5th, the remaining Ghibelline garrison is forced to withdraw.

London. The Guild of Goldsmiths, Tanners, and Tailors is founded.

Edward III becomes King of England

Messer Francesco da Ascoli, better known as Mastro Cecco, wrote the polemical essay “Sfera Armillary” with theses that were disliked by the Inquisition.

This is the year in which Iain M. Banks places the beginning of the war between the Idirans and the Culture in his science fiction novel “Consider Phlebas.” The war ends with the Culture’s total victory over the Idiran religious fundamentalists. Total casualties amounted to 851.4 billion (±0.3%) sentient creatures, including medjel (slaves of the Idirans), sentient machines, and non-combatants, and wiped out various smaller species, including the Changers. “The war resulted in the destruction of 91,215,660 (±200) starships above interplanetary, 14,334 orbitals, 53 planets and major moons, 1 ring, and 3 spheres, as well as the significant mass loss or sequence-position alteration of 6 stars.”

Louis the Bavarian was crowned King of Italy in Milan by the bishop and a host of priests, all of whom were promptly excommunicated by Pope John XXII. On January 7, he was crowned Emperor in Rome, marking the culmination of a profound military and political crisis in the Guelph camp.

Venice. The value of gold suddenly falls. It continues to decline until it is worth only 1 to 10 of silver. For 20 years, a ducat had been worth 24 silver grossi on the market. Suddenly, gold seems abundant and silver scarce. In 1326, a gold ducat is trading for only 20 silver grossi. Since debt is recorded in grossi, this becomes a problem for Venice.

Modena is besieged by the Guelph army of Versuzio Lando, coming from Piacenza. Albareto, Carpi, and Ganaceto are burned. Formigine surrenders to the Guelphs, as does the surrounding countryside, except Campogalliano, Finale, and Spilamberto, which resist. Meanwhile, the city is ravaged by bubonic plague, a lethal combination.

Peace treaty between Modena and Bologna after the Battle of Zappolino. Duke Passerino leaves Bologna the disputed territories of Monteveglio, Savignano, and Bazzano in exchange for the restitution of Nonantola after five years. These peace terms, following Modena’s crushing victory, and by Rainaldo Bonacolsi (known as Passerino), a far from gentle man, have astonished historians, raising the suspicion that he had been bribed by the Guelphs. Peace did not please the Este family, who had their sights set on Bologna. It is also possible that Passerino feared the cracks in the Ghibelline coalition, which soon became apparent, or that he distrusted his relatives and the nobles of Milan, and preferred to end the matter as quickly as possible, at all costs, and thus shore up the eastern front, with the Bolognese taking a while to recover. But Passerino thus fails to understand the Modenese animosity towards their powerful neighbor, and this discontent will soon turn into open revolt, forcing him to flee to Mantua, where he will be killed in an ambush.

From Piacenza, Versuzio Lando’s papal army is rushing to the aid of Bologna. On November 24, it reaches Reggio Emilia. The Modenese Ghibellines in Bologna are already retreating.

After the victory in the Battle of Zappolino between Modena and Bologna, the Modenese reached the walls of Bologna. Against all odds, however, they did not lay siege to the Guelph city (the siege of a large city in the 14th century was not an easy thing to organize anyway). Instead, three palio races were held as a sign of defiance to the Bolognese: one for Azzo Visconti of Cremona, one for Passerino of Modena, and one for the Este marquises.

After the victory in the Battle of Zappolino between Modena and Bologna, the Modenese also conquered Crespellano.

Battle of Zappolino between Modena and Bologna over the disputed “Stolen Bucket” (from a public well on Via San Felice in Bologna), now preserved in the Ghirlandina in Modena (in reality, the original is elsewhere and the one in the Ghirlandina is a copy—you never know, the Bolognese might come back for it…). Passerino, from Modena, had driven all the Guelphs (supporters of the papacy) from Modena in the previous years, and transformed Modena into a Ghibelline (supporters of the Empire) stronghold. The battle begins when the Modenese Ghibellines charge, shouting “Death to the dogs!”, and the enemy’s rout is immediately dramatically evident. Then six hundred Modenese knights led by Gangalando Bertucci (from Guiglia, an expert on the territory) descend on the Guelph flank. Panic broke out in the Guelph ranks: the cavalry retreated under the orders of Fulcieri da Calcoli of Cesena, leaving the dismounted army at the enemy’s mercy. Infantry, archers, crossbowmen, and lancers scattered in every possible direction. Only a handful of unstable Romagna and Florentines resisted, being “so badly beaten that more than five hundred cavalry and fifteen hundred dismounted were left captured and dead.” Night put an end to the slaughter, allowing the survivors to retreat. In all, the Modenese killed approximately three thousand enemies and captured fifteen hundred. Several illustrious Bolognese lords and Modenese exiles were killed, and even more were captured (at the time, captured lords were worth a considerable ransom). Victory went to the Passerino, that is, the Modenese. A city gate in Bologna was also broken down and carried off by the Modenese. Several hundred Bolognese prisoners and casualties were taken. Four horse races were also organized from the bridge over the Rhine to the gate of Bologna: an outrage beyond all limits! After only two years, Duke Passerino had to flee in haste to Mantua when the papal legate from France bought the alliance of Modena with florins (15,000 gold florins). Incidentally, when in Modena they say “the times of the Duke of Paserein” to refer to a distant past, they are referring to this period.

Monteveglio Castle, in the Emilian Apennines, previously controlled by the Guelphs (Bolognese), falls through treachery to the Ghibellines (Modenese). It is the linchpin of Bologna’s defensive system. The castle is difficult to besiege, given the nature of the surrounding terrain. The Ghibellines no longer leave the initiative to their Guelph adversaries: it is time to attack Bologna.

Founding of Tenoctitlan (later Mexico City) by the Aztecs

Presumed year of birth of Tamerlane

Modena. The Albareto Gate (later Porta Castello), on the north side of the city walls, is rebuilt and moved further north, by order of the imperial assassin Rinaldo Passerino Bonaccolsi.

The Ghibelline army, led by the Modenese, conquers Reggio. This is a resounding victory for Rainaldo Bonacolsi, known as Passerino, after his defeat at Montefiorino the previous year.

The Venetians invented the galley, specifically intended for trade, capable of carrying 150 tons of cargo in the hold, plus 50 tons of sailors’ chests above deck, with a crew of 200.

Occam – the Franciscan friar William of Ockham – taught at Oxford. He is credited with Occam’s Razor (first used by Sir William Rowan Hamilton in 1852), which states: “When competing theories have equal predictive power, the principle recommends selecting those that introduce as few assumptions (hypotheses) as possible and that hypothesize as few additional entities as possible.” Occam’s principle was actually: “entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem” or: “entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity.” Occam’s Razor has become one of the pillars of the scientific method.

The Campionese Masters complete the Ghirlandina Tower in Modena, building the tip of the Tower above the existing fifth floor.

Odorico of Pordenone, a Franciscan friar, reaches the Middle East, China and remains in Beijing for 3 years

Genoa. The Guelphs (pro-Pontiff) gain power, but the colonies of Pera and Caffa remain loyal to the Ghibelline (pro-Emperor) faction of Genoa and repel a military fleet sent against them by the Venetian Guelphs.

Rome. With the papal bull Si Fratum, Pope John XXII ordered Duke Passerino, Cangrande della Scala, and Matteo Visconti to resign their titles as imperial vicars, given the emperor’s absence. On May 5, 1323, the bishops of Mantua, Jacopo Benfatti, Guido of Modena, Bertrando del Poggetto, Cangrande, and Passerino met in the bishop’s palace. They discussed resigning their titles as imperial vicars, as ordered by the pope. While the meeting was underway, however, imperial envoys under Louis the Bavarian arrived and demanded that the two vicars obey the legitimate sovereign. Thus, the Ghibelline camp regrouped. But the story didn’t end there: on July 7, 1323, the pope initiated a trial in Piacenza against Cangrande and Passerino. The inquisitors were Friars Barnaba and Onesto. But Passerino Bonacolsi, known as Passerino, does not appear at the trial.

Morgarten. The newly formed Swiss Confederation wins a great victory against Leopold of Habsburg.

Modena, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, and Uguzzone della Faggiola formed an important military alliance. Modena in particular, being close to Guelph Bologna, found itself playing a much bigger game than itself.

Modena. Rainaldo Bonacolsi (known as “Passerino”), along with his brother Bonaventura, triumphantly enters Modena. With the possession of Finale, he maintains an outlet to the sea, via the Naviglio, the Panaro, and the Po rivers. The following year, Passerino enlarges the Town Hall and widens the city walls, and elects Luigi Gonzaga as podestà of Modena, who would dethrone and kill him 15 years later.

Kanku Musa was the ninth mansa of the Mali Empire, which reached its territorial peak during his reign. Musa was known for his wealth and generosity. He has been the subject of popular claims that he is the richest person in history, but the extent of his actual wealth is uncertain (although it has been estimated at around $400 billion in today’s dollars). Musa ruled an immense territory: between the Atlantic Ocean and modern-day Niger, an empire without a capital, an empire centered on trade in gold, slaves, salt, horses, camels, and textiles. Between 1324 and 1326, he undertook a costly pilgrimage to Mecca, a 4,300-kilometer journey, with an entourage of 15,000 people and 15 tons of gold.