Siege of Mortara (Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia). The Duke of Modena, Francis I, is struck by malarial fever and dies in the arms of his son Amerigo. Although Francis I had achieved glory in war, he was also a great builder of peacetime works: the Ducal Palace (by the architect Bartolomeo Avanzini) and the Ducal Theatre. His son, Alfonso IV, succeeded him, but died of gout shortly thereafter. Alfonso’s wife, Laura Martinozzi, a niece of Mazarin, then became Duchess. She was one of the so-called Mazarinettes, one of the nieces of Cardinal Mazarin, a deacon of the Catholic Church, active primarily in France, where he served as Principal Minister under the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, succeeding Cardinal Richelieu. Laura Martinozzi, 23 years old at the time, assumed the regency of the Duchy of Modena for her two-year-old son, until he was old enough to reign. She implemented a wise economic policy and completed the Ducal Palace. It was the only case of a female regency in the centuries-long history of the Este State.

The Dutch Golden Age: The Dutch occupy Ceylon and establish a colony there.

Netherlands. The leadership of the Jewish-Iberian congregation in Amsterdam pronounces the herem (social exclusion from the group—but different from Christian excommunication) expelling the philosopher Baruch Spinoza from the community. Born in Amsterdam in 1632 to Portuguese parents, he converted to Judaism in Hamburg and studied with freethinkers and Jesuits. The “horrible heresies” and “monstrous acts” he is accused of have never been made explicit, and thus remain an unsolved mystery.

In 1633, in South America, Jesuit Father Antonio de Calaucha noted the surprising properties of the “fever tree” in preventing malaria. These trees belong to the Chinchona genus, which produce quinine, an antimalarial. In the following years, the use of quinine spread among the Jesuits in Peru. Between 1640 and 1650, Father Bartolomé Tafur brought some bark to Rome. The 1655 conclave in Rome was the first without a single death from malaria, which was endemic in Rome at the time. The Jesuits then began importing large quantities of bark to Europe, and a thriving trade ensued, reaching much of Europe—except in England, where “Jesuit dust” was viewed with suspicion by Protestants. Oliver Cromwell himself refused to be treated by the papists and died of malaria in 1658. Then, in 1670, another anti-malaria drug gained notoriety in England: Robert Talbor’s, and was used even by royalty and all the nobility. Then, after the death of Talbor, who had become rich thanks to his miracle cure, it was discovered that his drug was based on quinine…

England, republican regime led by Oliver Cromwell, who established a personal dictatorship in 1853.

The Dutch vessel Sparrow Hawk ran aground on its voyage from Taiwan to Nagasaki, carrying a cargo of pepper, sugar, and 20,000 deer skins. Of the 64 men on board, 36 survived and reached shore on Cheju Island. Nothing more was heard of these men for a while, until 13 years later, eight of them reached Nagasaki and told of a Dutchman, Weltevree, who had been living in Korea for 39 years (he too a castaway from another Dutch expedition from Taiwan to Nagasaki).

First Anglo-Dutch War. The English unsuccessfully attempted to gain a foothold in the East Indies (now Indonesia), but they tried to harass the Dutch wherever possible. In one such attack, in 1664, they occupied the colony of New Netherland, whose capital, New Amsterdam, was located in the great estuary of the Hudson River, on the island the natives called Manhattan (Island with Hills). It had been founded in 1624. The English renamed it New York, in honor of King Charles II’s brother, James, Duke of York, the direct promoter of the initiative and the supreme admiral of England.

The Dutch arrive in Cape Town, South Africa

A document from Barbados stated that “The principal intoxicant produced in the island is Rumbullion, also called Kill-Divil, made from distilled sugar-cane, a hot, infernal, and terrible liquor.”

The Galilean method of observing Jupiter’s Medicean satellites to determine longitude became popular among cartographers, but was only used on land; however, it allowed a qualitative leap in the accuracy of maps.

The first rifle is used systematically in infantry

The foundations of the modern market economy were laid: corporations. Before the 17th century, if you owned a business, you were responsible for the entire enterprise. Chartered Companies introduced the concept of “limited liability.” The corporate entity was responsible for the debts, not the individuals who owned the business. Their exposure was limited to their initial investment. Thus, the risk was shifted from the debtor to the creditor. This greatly increased investment, entrepreneurship, and the stock market.

Native Americans. In South and North America, they constituted 80% of the population in 1650. By 1825, they still accounted for 59% of Spanish America, 21% of Brazil, and 4% of Anglo-Saxon America. A strong influx of immigrants from Europe began.

Jubilee celebrated by Innocent X

Magdeburg, Germany. Otto von Guericke’s scientific research, which made him famous during his lifetime and for which he is still remembered today, focused on the study of the properties of air and vacuum. He became famous for his invention, in 1650, of the first pneumatic pump for creating a vacuum and for his famous Magdeburg hemisphere experiment. The aim of the experiment was to demonstrate the enormous pressure exerted by atmospheric air on all bodies within it. To do this, in 1650 at the Imperial Diet in Regensburg, he constructed two bronze hemispheres that he fitted together; then, using a pump, he created a vacuum within them. The force that atmospheric pressure exerted on the two hemispheres was such that not even three pairs of horses could separate the two hemispheres; once the air was reintroduced, the two hemispheres separated on their own, effortlessly.

European armorers (or gunsmiths) learned to make triggers that wouldn’t accidentally fire every time the rifle was hit. With this invention, muskets replaced arquebuses.

Treaty of Westphalia: The principle of non-interference in national sovereignty was established. The Treaty of Westphalia was signed, ending the Thirty Years’ War and radically shifting the balance of power in Europe. The Thirty Years’ War, a series of conflicts fought by various European countries for various reasons, had broken out in 1618 following the attempt by the King of Bohemia (the future Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II) to impose Catholicism throughout his dominions. Protestant nobles rebelled, and by the 1630s, much of continental Europe was at war. As a result of the Treaty of Westphalia, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, Sweden gained control of the Baltics, the independence of the Netherlands from Spain was fully reaffirmed, and France was recognized as the leading European power. The war had ravaged the continent, especially Germany, where armies of unpaid mercenaries raided and pillaged cities, villages and farms.

Present-day Poland and Ukraine. The death of Władysław IV sparked anarchy, including popular uprisings against the Polish magnates, nobles, and Jews. The estimated death toll in Ukraine was 18,000–20,000 out of a population of 40,000. Many communities were destroyed. In Nemirov, for example, in May 1648, the Cossacks massacred 6,000 people. Peace was achieved through the mediation of the Tatars on June 18, 1649.

Giovan Battista Doni, the man who, in Italy, effectively changed the name of the note UT to the note DO (from DOni), dies; historical note: the Italian notation (do, re, mi, etc.) was born around the year 1000 with Guido d’Arezzo

Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. The Dutch Neuw Haarlem ran aground near the cape, forcing its occupants to remain there for about a year. This was the first Dutch settlement in South Africa. Unlike Portuguese or English settlements, the Dutch ones were, at least initially, commercial rather than military in nature.

The philosopher and Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi, in a series of philosophical works, defends atomism, defines its indivisibility and impenetrability, and also defines molecules.

In commercial or military vessels, approximately one sailor is needed for every five tons of displacement. In the 14th century, it was one for every 10 tons in Venetian cogs, while in the 13th century, it was one for every 5 tons in lateen-rigged ships. In the 17th century, sailors began to increase again, mostly for defense against pirates.

Johannes Hevelius publishes the first scientific book entirely dedicated to the Moon: Selenographia.

Blaise Pascal suffered from stomach aches, difficulty swallowing and digesting, was frail and sickly, had severe headaches, sweating fits, and suffered from partial paralysis of his legs. Doctors prescribed bloodletting and purges. At 24, in 1647, he returned to live with his sister, and here a new series of doctors advised him to avoid prolonged mental exertion and take advantage of every opportunity for recreation. Pascal’s social life began, and his health also improved significantly.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz was born in Leipzig, Germany.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz was born in Leipzig

Blaise Pascal, at the age of 23, converted to Jansenism, a religious doctrine in contrast with Roman Catholicism, which was declared heretical by Pope Innocent X in 1653.

Hannah, Isaac Newton’s mother, abandoned her son when he was just over three years old to marry Father Barnabas Smith, who died eight years later after having had three children with her; Isaac Newton would forever harbor feelings of hatred towards his stepfather and mother.

Little Ice Age: 1-2 degrees cooler on average worldwide due to decreased solar activity;

Maunder Minimum (“Little Ice Age”): 1-2 degrees cooler on average worldwide due to decreased solar activity; but locally, temperatures went much further, with Greenland inaccessible for three centuries, glaciers advancing several kilometers, summers sometimes lacking altogether, and Iceland surrounded by ice.

During the Maunder Minimum, sunspots become extremely rare or disappear altogether, even during solar maxima.

England: Battle of Naseby: Disastrous military defeat for the Royalists

Cretan War. Venice wins most of the naval battles, but fails to prevent the Turks from conquering the island. Venetian forces are impressive: 60-70 galleys, 4 galleasses, and 36 galleons. During the 24 years of war, the Venetians are always on the offensive at sea, seeking battle even under severely inferior conditions and almost always achieving victory thanks to their seafaring prowess. The Venetians’ strenuous defense of Candia against the Turks arouses admiration throughout Europe.

Qing Dynasty in China

China. Beijing falls to the rebel leader Li Zicheng. The last Ming emperor, Chongzen, hangs himself shortly before the arrival of the Manchus. Since he had Jesuits at court, he had also sent a letter to the Pope asking him to send troops to protect China and expel the Manchus (but he had not fully understood the nature of papal power…). The consequences of the collapse of the Ming dynasty will be devastating for China: in little more than a generation, the population will drop by 40% due to conflicts and epidemics. The Qing dynasty begins.

René Descartes, aka Descartes, publishes The Principles of Philosophy, which also incorporates much of the material from The World, which was never published during his lifetime.

In Cogitata Physica-Mathematica the French monk Marin Mersenne makes a conjecture (Mersenne conjecture): the numbers 2^n – 1 are prime for n=2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257; it took more than 3 centuries to prove that these numbers were really prime; by the end of the 20th century the list of Mersenne primes had already expanded to the number 2^6972593-1 (2098960 digits).

Battle of Maston Moore near York, England: Cromwell’s Roundheads defeat King Charles’s Royals

China. Yang Schicong writes “Collective Writing from the Jade Hall,” a valuable account of court life in the final decade of the Ming Dynasty.

China. A terrible epidemic sweeps across Northern China. This will favor the success of the Manchu invasion.

The Pope declares that priests cannot smoke tobacco in church. Smoking tobacco is a habit that has spread rapidly among priests in recent decades, imported from the Americas by the Portuguese and Spanish. Only the Jesuits remain hostile to the new practice.

Gregorian calendar (in the Julian calendar, adopted in England, this is Christmas, December 25, 1642). Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire.

Modena. Construction of the Citadel is completed.

Tibet, affirmation of the Dalai Lama’s theocratic regime

Blaise Pascal builds the Pascaline (calculator)

Julian calendar (in the Gregorian calendar, adopted by much of the rest of Europe, including Italy, this is January 4, 1643). Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire.

England: Battle of Edgehill, won by the Royalists

England. The civil war pitted “knights” against “roundheads” (i.e., those without the heavy curls that were fashionable among the aristocracy). The nobility was almost entirely on the side of the King, while the merchant bourgeoisie, artisans, and small landowners sided with Parliament. Initially, Charles I’s army prevailed, but then came the decisive intervention of Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan country gentleman, willing to do anything to combat the idolatry he identified with the Catholic religion and the king. Cromwell’s Ironsides decisively defeated the royal army in 1648 at Preston. The monarchy was abolished and a republic established, and on January 3, 1649, King Charles I was executed after being condemned by a court in the name of the law established by Parliament. This was a revolutionary act, unique in Europe, which reverberated throughout all the continent’s monarchies. But then Oliver Cromwell’s role as “Protector” will increasingly take on the characteristics of a monarch, until the restoration of the Stuarts in the person of King Charles II in 1660. The new parliament will have a strong Anglican presence, and with measures against not only Catholics, but also Quakers and Presbyterians.

Hannah Ayscough, Newton’s mother, marries Isaac Newton Sr. in Woolsthorpe

Australia. In the first encounter between Aborigines and Europeans, the former were judged by the latter to be the simplest and most backward culture in the world. In reality, the Aborigines, divided into opposing tribes, were among the most advanced societies in the world by 38,000 BC. For several thousand years, they had already possessed vessels capable of navigating the high seas and reaching destinations beyond the horizon. They had various types of stone tools, composite weapons such as stone axes with wooden handles, and painted on rock faces. All this occurred 28,000 years before the end of the last glaciation (Wurz), when the rest of the planet would begin the same development. Several factors also played against the Aborigines, including the lack of large, domesticated animals (most likely exterminated by the Aborigines themselves), the lack of high-yielding crops for agriculture, and a limited territory with no easy East-West communication for exchange with other cultures.

The English Civil War, the execution of Charles I, and the establishment of the only republic ever to exist on English soil, all had to do (also) with soap. At the time, very few homes had bathrooms, and even then, bathing was done about once a year, often by the whole family in the same tub and with the same water. But soap was used to wash clothes, wash hands, and perhaps even the face. What was frowned upon was bathing naked and washing the body. Soap was made from beef fat or tallow, which contains a whopping 48% oleic acid. Among animal fats, beef and human fat have the highest content of oleic acid, an unsaturated fat. When Charles I came to power in England, desperate for revenue and given the thriving soap industry, he asked Parliament to impose taxes on it. When they refused, he sold the monopoly rights to soap production. Soap manufacturers, exasperated by the loss of their livelihoods, supported Parliament. This admittedly somewhat far-fetched argument aside, it can certainly be said that soap has had the merit of reducing infant mortality in England in recent years. Soap works thanks to a hydrophilic head, soluble in water, and a hydrophobic tail, insoluble in water but which dissolves in substances such as grease, oil, and fat.

Now blind, Galileo Galilei dies in Arcetri. Galileo dies in Florence, where he is under house arrest imposed by the Holy Office, in the villa Il Gioiello on the Arcetri hill south of Florence, a few steps from the convent where his daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, lives.

Plague epidemic in England

China. Emperor Yang outlaws the production and consumption of tobacco. For several decades, heavy tobacco consumption had become widespread in China, imported by the Portuguese and then grown by Chinese farmers, who earned ten times the profit from wheat, but jeopardized the emperor’s army’s bread supplies. He then decreed that anyone caught smoking tobacco would be beheaded. In 1642, the ban was lifted, and tobacco production and consumption returned to peak.