Henry VIII, the first Protestant king of England and head of the Anglican Church, dies and is succeeded by his daughter Mary (a Catholic).

Gerolamo Cardano published Ars Magna where he accepted the square root of a negative number in the resolution process for solving cubic equations, thus introducing complex numbers into mathematics (the resolution methods had previously been developed independently by Niccolo’ Tartaglia and Scipione Ferro).

Stirling. Mary is crowned Queen of Scots. Her father, King James V, had died shortly after the Battle of Solway Moss after a mental and physical collapse. Her daughter, Mary, was only a week old when her father died and was crowned queen at nine months old. Mary then became Queen of France when she married Francis, King of France, who died only a year after their marriage. She then returned to Scotland to marry her cousin, Henry Stewart, Earl of Darnley. Henry was surly and brutal and at one point murdered David Riccio, Mary’s secretary, in front of her. One day, Henry Stewart’s house was set on fire, and when he tried to escape, he was strangled and killed. Mary then married James Hepburn, Fourth Earl of Bothwell, without any better luck: Scottish Protestant nobles managed to imprison Mary, who was forced to abdicate in favor of her son, James VI, who was only 16 months old. Mary was then forced to flee to England, where she was imprisoned by Elizabeth (who was not recognized as Queen of England by Catholics, as Elizabeth was the daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII following her divorce from her previous marriage). In 1586, after 18 years in prison, she authorized the plot to kill Elizabeth and exchanged information using encrypted codes. However, Mary’s agent, Gifford, was actually a double agent and was also in the pay of Walsingham, who obtained copies of each letter, which were then resealed after being copied. The letters were then deciphered by Phelippes using the frequency of each letter and suggested attempts. Mary’s trial began on October 15th. She maintained a composed and dignified demeanor throughout the trial and denied everything. However, she was sentenced to death, a sentence signed by Elizabeth, and was beheaded on February 8, 1587, in front of a crowd of three hundred people in the Great Hall of Fotheringhay Castle.

Nicholas Copernicus (Niklas Koppernigk or Nicolaus Copernicus, priest and mathematician): “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs.” The book was published when Copernicus was already on his deathbed. The printing of Copernican heliocentric theory was completed at Hans Petreiuss’s printing house, at 9 Öberg Street in Nuremberg. The book perhaps marked the true birth of science: “And finally, the sun will be considered to occupy the center of the universe. All these things are taught to us by the law of order, in which those bodies succeed one another, and by the harmony of the entire world, if only we try to look at matters, as they say, with both eyes.”

Vesalius publishes the first accurate text of human anatomy

Japan. A pair of Portuguese adventurers, having hitched a ride on a Chinese ship, brought the first arquebuses to the land of the Rising Sun. Within a few decades, Japan had heavily armed itself with this innovative weapon, and in 1592, when Japan invaded Korea, it brought with it tens of thousands of arquebuses made by Japanese blacksmiths.

Firearms reached Japan with the arrival of two Portuguese adventurers armed with arquebuses aboard a Chinese commercial cargo ship. The Japanese were so impressed that they immediately began mass production, improved the technology, and by 1600 possessed more rifles than any other nation in the world, and even better ones. But then, in 1600, samurai with their katanas were the symbol of power, and rifles were a foreign invention, so the samurai-controlled government reduced rifle production, then required a government license, then banned non-government production, then reduced the quantity, until Japan was virtually without firearms. All this changed abruptly when Japan reopened to the West with the arrival of Commodore Perry in 1853.

Testa di Vaca discovers the Iguacu Falls, on the border between Argentina and Brazil and a few kilometers from Paraguay

Inca revolt in Peru, led by Manco Capac.

The Knights of St. John, expelled from Rhodes, conquered by the Ottoman Turks, found a new homeland on the island of Malta.

Charles V, integrating the navies of all Europe and Italy except Venice, assembles a formidable war force and attacks Tunis, part of the Ottoman Empire. He conquers the city with the enthusiastic support of the Spanish, who had already conquered other coastal cities in North Africa. Charles V entrusts the government of Tunis to a Muslim who agrees to submit to the Empire.

Americas. The Aztec and Mayan populations were initially exterminated, primarily by diseases brought by the Spanish (probably smallpox). However, unlike in North America, in Central and especially South America, the indigenous population was so numerous that, even after the extermination, they still constituted the majority of the population, albeit mixed with European traits. Particularly in the highlands of the Andes, the Europeans’ advantages in terms of crops, for example, did not apply, and even women with European ancestry faced fertility difficulties. In five centuries, from 1491 before the arrival of Europeans to the 20th century, the population of the Americas more than increased tenfold, despite the extermination of the natives by disease and war.

Cajamarca, Inca Empire. Excerpts from the detailed diary of six of Francisco Pizarro’s (The Governor) companions in arms, including the brothers Hernando and Pedro: “…We were all very frightened at having gone so far into unknown and hostile territory, with no possibility of supplies or reinforcements. The governor calls us to explain what we will do the next day. Few of us slept that night… The governor’s brother estimates the number of Indians at 40,000, but I think he was kind to us so as not to frighten us; I think there were at least double that number… The governor gives us the signal and rifles begin to fire, then with trumpets the infantry and cavalry gallop towards the encamped Indian soldiers. The Spanish battle cry “Santiago!” is heard. The Indians panic…. The governor bravely grabs Atahuallpa’s left arm and shouts “Santiago!”… Atahuallpa is captured… The sight was impressive: for 15 or 20 miles the valley was full of Indians. Night had already fallen, and our cavalry continued to slaughter the Indians until the trumpets put an end to the slaughter. … Six or seven thousand Indians lie dead. Atahuallpa himself admits that there are seven thousand…” Pizarro had only 62 cavalry and 106 infantry, while Atahuallpa had 80,000 soldiers. Spanish losses were zero. The difference was steel swords, steel armor, rifles (a dozen in all, in fact), and horses.

Cajamarca, Inca Empire. First meeting between Francisco Pizarro, representing Charles V and the Holy Roman Empire, the most powerful European state, and Atahuallpa, King of the Inca Empire, the most powerful and largest empire in the New World. Pizarro has with him the survivors of the long journey, 168 Spanish soldiers, in an unfamiliar environment and culture, without any supply chain. Atahuallpa is in the middle of his empire with millions of subjects and surrounded by his army of 80,000 soldiers, recently returned victorious from a battle with other Native Americans. Within minutes of the two meeting, Pizarro has already taken Atahuallpa hostage. He will hold him prisoner for eight months, demanding the largest ransom in history: enough gold to fill a room measuring over 7m x 6m x 3m. The subjects bring all the gold, and Pizarro betrays his promise and kills Atahuallpa.

Cajamarca, Ecuador. Francisco Pizarro, leaving Spain with only 180 men, executes 2,000 indigenous people of the Inca Empire, losing only five conquistadors, and even manages to capture King Atahuallpa, extort a ransom of gold and silver, and then kill him.

Ottoman Sultan Suleiman and his army try again. They move towards Vienna. Arriving at the town of Koszeg on the Austrian border, they are stopped by the stubborn resistance of the town’s commander, Nikola Jurisic, and his 800 Croatian soldiers. Without any artillery, they withstand constant bombardment and as many as 19 general assaults. Eventually, the Ottomans retreat. Vienna is saved once again.

Halley’s Comet passes. This time Luther comments that it doesn’t bring any good. Another reformer, the Swiss Huldreich Zwingli, echoes his sentiments and predicts his imminent death, and at the end of the year, he does indeed die. Coincidence? Yes.

Guadalupe, Mexico. According to tradition, the Virgin Mary appeared to a young Aztec, whom the Spanish called Juan Diego, and her image was imprinted on the young man’s robe. A church was built on the site. Millions of people would make pilgrimages there in the years to come, making it the second most visited Christian site in the world after the Vatican. The combined strength of Aztec and Catholic religious sentiments fused with irresistible force. In 1737, the Virgin of Guadalupe was declared the patron saint of Mexico, and in 2002, Pope John Paul II declared Juan Diego a saint according to the Catholic Church.

Lucca. Weavers’ Revolt (or Ragged People’s Revolt). Following the new laws passed the previous January, which burdened silk weavers, they revolted on May 1st, starting from the Church of San Francesco and waving a torn black banner. They also protested the “expensive and sad” bread, which was scarce and bad. The story had several twists and turns, with the demands accepted, a reversal, the intervention of Andrea Doria, and then the revolt escalated into a near-civil war. Giovanni Guidiccioni, a man of the Church, also intervened, defending the “ragged people” and being the first to understand that the aristocrats should be brought to trial.

Portuguese King Joao III sent the first settlers to Brazil: 5 ships carrying 400 people.

Francisco Pizarro sets foot on the coast of Peru with 168 men, intent on conquering the Inca Empire, which numbered millions. Fortunately for him, and unfortunately for the Incas, five years earlier, the local population had been struck by a smallpox epidemic, killing a significant portion of the population, including Emperor Huyana Capac and his designated successor.

Modena. Emperor Charles V was staying in the city and during a visit to the Cathedral, he collapsed on the floor with his belly, slipping on the marble (in Modena, they say he slipped).

Copernicus finishes “De revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” but, due to his perfectionism and fear of ecclesiastical condemnation, being himself a priest, he postpones the publication from year to year until 1543 when, with Copernicus paralyzed on the right side and dying, the “De Revolutionibus” is published filtered and revised by a Lutheran theologian.

Capitulation of Florence to the imperial army

The troops led by Francesco Ferrucci of the Republic of Florence defeat the imperial army at Gavinana

Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna. Coronation of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor. This coronation was agreed upon by Pope Clement VII Medici and Emperor Charles V to heal the political and religious conflicts dividing the Italian and European worlds and to achieve that “universal peace” in the Christian West that would ensure a more effective defense against Turkish aggression that had reached the gates of Vienna. Preparations for the meeting between the two sovereigns, already underway for some time, encountered difficulties and delays due to the pope’s uncertain will to achieve these common goals according to the modalities proposed by imperial diplomacy. These difficulties concerned, among other things, the venue for the meeting: Clement VII would have preferred Rome, while Charles V chose Bologna instead, given the resentment of the Romans against him. After the Sack of Rome (1527) carried out by the imperial troops, a moment of extreme conflict between the Papacy and the Empire, the intense diplomatic activity which followed during 1529 led to a rapprochement between the opposing parties which would be favourable to the preparation of the meeting in Bologna.

Suez. The Venetians convinced the Mamluk sultan to begin digging the canal, but the work would not be decisive until 1586 with the arrival of the Ottomans, who considered it to be of military, not commercial, importance: to protect Mecca from Christian attacks and to carry the war to India. But this Ottoman attempt also was unsuccessful, and the canal was never completed.

Flemish astronomer Gemma Frisius first hailed the mechanical clock as a possible solution to the longitude problem.

The Republic of Florence is besieged by the army of Emperor Charles V

Treaty of Saragossa: The Portuguese pay the Spanish 350,000 ducats for exclusive rights to the Moluccas. Nothing is actually said about the Spanish Philippines, where spices can obviously be brought from the Moluccas.

Venice, after shifting its attention to the mainland and suffering some defeats there, began to happily pursue a policy of neutrality, continuing to enrich itself through trade, art, and culture. But any fear, or hope, of Venetian dominance for the unification of Italy vanished.

Barbary pirates led by Khair ad-Din, a Greek by birth, better known as Barbarossa, seize Algiers. With this addition, the Ottoman Empire extends its dominion to the entire southern Mediterranean, from Albania to Morocco.

After a failed siege of Vienna, Ottoman Sultan Suleiman and his army begin a hasty retreat across ever-deepening snowfields.

Ottoman Sultan Suleiman and his army besieged Vienna; heavy rains forced him to leave behind the heavy artillery that could have made the difference; during the retreat he massacred 30,000 Austrian peasants.

Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (Suleiman) retakes Buda and annihilates the local Habsburg garrison. A week later, he appears at the gates of Vienna.

The Scottish king King James V assembles a force of 8,000 men to hunt down the “reivers”, groups of bandits and thieves (the most representative family were the Armstrongs) who amount to as many as 12,000 – 15,000 people (3% of the Scottish population).

Two families of German bankers purchased the rights to colonize Venezuela from Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. The Spanish regained their rights to Venezuela in 1556.

Sante Pagnini in Lucca divides the Bible into verses

The conquistadors begin the conquest of the New Mayan Empire

Henry VIII asks for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England, but the Pope is under the control of Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, and so the permission does not arrive: the Anglican Church is born and the Protestant thesis gains momentum.

Charles V’s troops sack Rome

The Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had 3 million Hungarians deported as slaves to the markets and bazaars of Istanbul, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, Algiers

Giovanni of the Black Bands dies while trying to stop the German Landsknechts who had descended from Germany to hang the Pope; the Germans have four arquebuses donated to them by the Duke of Este of Ferrara; Giovanni, mortally wounded by one of them, is cared for by the Gonzaga family in Mantua. He was the son of Giovanni de’ Medici and Caterina Riario Sforza, an excellent leader—he was seen by Machiavelli as the man capable of unifying Italy—and his figure is shrouded in legend, often concealing his ferocity. He earned his nickname when, upon the death of the Medici Pope Leo X, he changed the stripes of his ensign as a captain of fortune from white to black as a sign of mourning. A true mercenary, eager only to fight for whoever paid him best, in just four years, from 1522 to 1526, he changed sides four times: he was in the pay of the Pope, then of the French, of the Imperials, and then of the French again. He led the army of the League of Cognac, a Franco-Venetian-Papal alliance desired by Pope Clement VII (still a Medici) against the imperials, but he was killed by a culverin shot and the Landsknechts opened the way for the sack of Rome (1527).

The Mughal Empire, founded by Babur, began in India and lasted until 1857. Mongol rule, which fused Indian traditions with the Islamic religion, thus followed nearly four centuries of Islamic rule over much of India. Mughal emperors married Hindu wives, the Islamic lunar calendar was abandoned, but many Hindu traditions were fused with Islamic ones. It was only in 1803, when the Indian subcontinent was divided between Hindu kingdoms and British colonial dominions, that India was declared no longer an Islamic country by the leader of the Ulama of Delhi.

Smallpox epidemic among the Incas of South America, due to the arrival of the Spanish in the Isthmus of Panama.

Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and his army briefly occupied Buda. They returned permanently in 1541, where they remained until 1686, when it returned to Christian hands.

Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent wins the Battle of Mohacs (Hungary) in just 48 hours

The Muslim Suleiman the Magnificent moves with 400,000 men, 30,000 camels, 40,000 horses, 300 cannons, towards Hungary