Italy. After dissolving Young Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Europe, an international organization dedicated to the affirmation of democracy and the most important, yet unfulfilled, nationalities such as Germany, Italy, and Poland.

Italy. Following the end of the Revolutionary Movement, Mazzini dissolved Young Italy, only to reform it a few years later, in 1839, in London.

Francis IV built the Foro Boarium in Modena “for the honor and convenience of the faithful farmers,” but they did not like it, and the building remained empty. The large structure was subsequently used for a variety of purposes. Today it houses the University’s Faculty of Economics.

Abraham Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature. Shortly thereafter, he worked to move the state capital north to Springfield, away from the predominantly agricultural area. Near Springfield, a small town called Chicago was already growing.

Abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire.

The prestigious award of the Medal of Military Valor is created

Tierra del Fuego. Jemmy Button, of the Yamana tribe, had been “purchased” here in exchange for a glass button, and for this reason he was called “Button.” He was brought to England, dressed and educated as an Englishman. We know this story because Charles Darwin told it to us. Jemmy Button was on the Beagle with Darwin, to be taken back to Tierra del Fuego and to act as an interpreter to civilize the others of his tribe. On January 24, 1833, Jemmy Button, wearing a starched shirt, gloves, gaiters, a cane, and patent leather shoes, looked with dismay at the naked, painted-faced Aborigines. They recognized him and approached him, asking questions. He answered first in English, and then, confused, in Spanish. Darwin and the others set sail again and left him there. They sailed up the Atlantic and then returned to pick him up a month later and continue on to round Cape Horn. When they meet him again, he is naked, emaciated, disheveled, his face painted: he has become a Yamana again. The English are heartbroken and ask him if he really wants to return with them. He says no, and introduces them to his girlfriend, dressed like a girl from Tierra del Fuego (i.e., naked). Rather than abandon her, he is willing to give up everything he knew in England. Far away from there. This is the story of Jemmy Button. A strange tale of travel, technology, fire and steam, different languages, misunderstandings, and one that proclaims love as an immense force, capable of overcoming immense differences.

England. The Factory Act prohibits children under 9 from working, and limits the length of the working day for those under 14.

Michael Faraday, from some experiments, intuits that the concept of field is necessary, which is alien to the foundations of Newtonian physics, based on particles and forces.

Sadi Carnot, son of Lazare Carnot, dies of cholera. All his personal effects are burned, including most of his notes. His work, however, will be noticed several years later by William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) and Rudolf Clausius, who will draw inspiration from it to formulate the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Perhaps the most important (and least understood) law in physics.

Evariste (son of Nicholas-Gabriel) Galois, French mathematician, is killed in a duel for reasons of love; The night before his death, he spent it by candlelight, writing down his unpublished mathematical discoveries, including the solution to solvable fifth-degree equations and a method for determining which ones were solvable for the 5th, 6th, and 7th degrees. His father, Nicholas-Gabriel Galois, had committed suicide only two years earlier and left his son the following letter: “My dearest son, this is the last letter you will receive from me. When you read these words, I will no longer be among the living, but I do not want you to despair or grieve. Try to resume a normal life as much as possible. I know it will be difficult for you to forget a father who was also a friend to you. I want to try to explain to you as best I can why I have decided to take this one-way step. You know, my little one, that I have been mayor of this city for seventeen years. After Waterloo, the enemies of Liberty tried to oust me, but in vain. They knew all my political beliefs and my My opinion on the Bourbons and the Jesuits. I am certain, my son, that the parish priest and the men who sent him knew they could not undermine my authority in an open confrontation, and so they changed their methods. I was no longer an adversary to be feared, but rather to be ridiculed. Some began to give me barely suppressed smiles. Others, my lifelong enemies, laughed in my face, singing songs about Bourg-la-Reine, which, having chosen a crazy mayor, had become the laughing stock of the country. If I didn’t react, they laughed in my face; if I tried to use persuasion, they laughed in my face; if I got angry, they laughed doubly. With this extreme gesture, I can at least regain the respect they felt for me and my family. So no one will be able to mock your mother and you. I am dying of suffocation. I am dying from lack of fresh air. This poisoned air that Kills has been spoiled by the citizens of Bourg-la-Reine, you must know and understand this. It is very painful for me to say goodbye to you, my dear son. You are my firstborn, and I have always been proud of you. One

England. The first DC electric motor was invented by William Sturgeon. A few years later, in 1837, Thomas Davenport in the United States invented the first DC commutator electric motor. He powered it with batteries, which were quite scarce at the time. And there was no electricity distribution system yet.

Construction of Manchester’s sewers begins; over 600 km of sewers will be built in 30 years; a huge undertaking for the time.

England. Jeremy Bentham, a proponent of teaching science and technology in secondary education, to the detriment of Greek and Latin, dies. He and his colleagues founded University College London, the first English school not to require a religious exam for admission.

England. The Great Reform Bill greatly expands Parliament’s electorate. It is passed into law just weeks before the death of Jeremy Bentham, its great supporter.

Charles Babbage built his Analytical Engine, programmable with punched cards. It was a partial version of an all-purpose mechanical digital computer. A complete version was never built, given its complexity. It had memory, a punched-card program, and the ability to perform conditional branching. All mechanically.

The ambitious and capable Ada Lovelace, at just 17 years old, after having tried in vain to convince Babbage to be her tutor, succeeds with Augustus De Morgan.

Silvio Pellico published his memoirs, “My Prisons,” which enjoyed great popularity and had a significant influence on the Risorgimento movement. Metternich admitted that the book had damaged Austria more than a lost battle. Pellico also wrote the Memoirs after his release, a text now lost.

Frenchman Jean-François Champollion died at just 41. A few years earlier, he had published the book “Precis du systeme hieroglyphique”: thanks to the decoding of the Rosetta Stone, for the first time in 14 centuries it was finally possible to read the history of the pharaohs in hieroglyphics. This progress had also been made possible by the Englishman Thomas Young, who made a giant leap forward in the interpretation of the Rosetta Stone and, in particular, in understanding the sound and pronunciation of the ancient Egyptian language. The key features were the cartouches, small groups of hieroglyphs surrounded by a continuous line, a kind of thin frame. He discovered that these words were framed because they represented the names of important figures, such as Ptolemaios (Ptolemy), Berenika (Berenice), or Cleopatra. Since the sound of these names would have been approximately the same in different languages, he was able to understand the phonetics of several hieroglyphs. Then, in 1822, the Frenchman Jean-François Champollion applied this methodology to other cartouches, and with a few assumptions (for example, scribes often tended to omit vowels, thinking that a reader would guess them anyway, as with Alksentrs, representing Alexander), Champollion managed to decipher the Rosetta Stone. He burst into his brother’s office and exclaimed, “Je tiens l’affaire!”

London. A cholera epidemic breaks out in the city. It arrived from the Ganges River in India. It is thought to spread through miasmas (bad air), corpses, and rotting vegetables.

Charles Darwin sailed on the Beagle and visited the Galapagos. After his return, he began compiling his famous treatise on the origin of species; he never set foot outside England again.

Charles Darwin set sail from Davenport aboard the Beagle, a ten-gun brigantine commanded by Fitz Roy. The mission’s purpose was to complete surveys of the coasts of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, Chile, Peru, and several Pacific islands, and to make chronometric observations.

Michael Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction

The Swede Nils Sefstrom discovered vanadium and gave it the alternative name of the goddess Freyja: Vanadis, the Dis of the Vanir, meaning the lady of the fair people, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Vanadium had actually already been discovered in 1801 by Manuel Del Rio of the Mexico City Mining School, a mineralogist of Spanish origins, who found it in a previously unknown mineral he called panchromium. But in 1803, the Frenchman Alexander von Humboldt declared it to be nothing more than simple chromium. Manuel Del Rio bowed to the judgement, but he was right.

Michael Faraday wraps a copper wire around an iron ring to demonstrate electromagnetic induction for the first time. This would be the basis for a new Industrial Revolution, thanks to the development of electric motors, robots, power plant alternators, modern trains, and electric cars.

Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana, a Turin mathematician and astronomer, created the Universal Calendar, a mechanical machine that calculated the monthly and weekly positions of each day from the birth of Christ to 4000 AD, as well as the lunar phases and the tides.

Charles Darwin finds his way: in the spring he begins studying geology and in the fall receives an offer to sail on the Beagle. In the preceding years, he had not had very clear ideas: with an early mania for collecting and a strong inclination for solitary walking that he had had since childhood, he also did poorly in high school and soon settled into the certainty that he would inherit a fortune sufficient to avoid having to work.

Scotsman Robert Brown was the first to observe the nucleus of a cell.

James Cleland conducts an experiment in County Down, Ireland, trying to acclimatize snakes (6) on the island, which was devoid of them. The experiment gives rise to all sorts of superstitions, including the prediction that the end of the world was imminent.

United States. Musician Gaetano Carusi and his sons appeal to Congress for a $1,000 reimbursement so they can return to Italy. Carusi and his band had been hired in 1812 to play aboard the USS Chesapeake (which fought in the War of 1812 against the British), because President Jefferson was a music enthusiast. Carusi had been hired in Italy and brought to America. The Chesapeake was destroyed by the British attack of the HMS Leopard on June 22, 1807, and he lost everything in the disaster. His request to Congress was denied, and, unable to return to Italy, he resigned and opened Carusi’s Saloon in Washington, DC, which would become a destination for presidents, galas, balls, and concerts.

In Italy, Mazzini founded Young Italy, a cadre party composed primarily of young professionals, students, and intellectuals. It spread to Milan, Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Tuscany, Romagna, and Nice, reaching 60,000 members. However, it remained almost absent in Southern Italy, where the Carbonari movement prevailed.

Virginia, United States. The slave Nat Turner, after taking a solar eclipse as a sign to act, leads a rebellion in Southampton County that results in the killing of 60 white men. He is captured and executed.

Revolutionary riots in Modena (Carboneria). Execution of Ciro Menotti.

Modena. Despite numerous pleas from various quarters for a commutation of the sentence, Duke Francis IV adamantly carries out the death sentence of Ciro Menotti in the Citadel, along with that of notary Vincenzo Borrelli, guilty of drafting the act of forfeiture of Francis IV after his escape from the duchy and therefore condemned to death. Menotti spends the night before the execution with a priest, to whom he delivers a noble letter for his wife. The guards confiscate the letter, and it is not until 1848 that the liberators deliver it to the widow, two years after the Duke’s death and the expulsion of the Habsburg-Este family. The death sentence is published only after the execution, to prevent potential unrest and revolts. His figure as a revolutionary and romantic hero becomes a symbol during the Risorgimento. Popular history says that when the Duke and his horse had previously stopped under his window on Corso Canal Grande in Modena to ask him to go into exile, he responded: “Va’ via te, duchín e’d merda” (also reported as a request to surrender and the response “arendet te duchin ed merda!”).

Modena. Duke Francis IV holds the trial of Ciro Menotti, which ends with him being sentenced to death by hanging. Other conspirators (Luigi Adami, Giuseppe Brevini, and Antonio Giacomozzi) are initially sentenced to death, a sentence later commuted to 12 years in prison by Francis IV.

Modena. Duke Francesco IV returns to Modena after fleeing to Mantua (Austrian), taking with him the prisoner Ciro Menotti.

Northern Italy. The Austrian army intervenes in several cities to quell revolutionary uprisings and reinstate the regents. France does not react.

Modena. An attempt to help Ciro Menotti escape fails.

Modena. After gathering his weapons, Menotti gathered about forty conspirators in his home, not far from the Ducal Palace, to organize the revolt. Francis IV, however, in an abrupt about-face undoubtedly forced upon him by the Austrian government, decided to withdraw his support for Menotti’s cause and even requested the intervention of the Holy Alliance to restore it. Historians have always wondered about the duke’s double-dealing: some believe that the scion of the Habsburg-Este family understood that the plan for a Kingdom of Northern Italy was merely a utopia; others, however, maintain that Francis was jealous of Menotti’s charisma; still others believe that the duke feared losing many of his privileges after the revolution. The duke had his guards surround the house; shots were fired, and the conspirators attempted to escape; some succeeded, others failed, including Ciro Menotti, who, having jumped from a window into the garden behind the house, was injured and captured and imprisoned. Meanwhile, however, unrest began, especially in nearby Bologna. The Duke immediately wrote an order to the Governor of Reggio: “A terrible conspiracy against me broke out last night. Send me the executioner, then consider fleeing to Mantua, part of the Austrian dominions in Italy, but taking Menotti with him.” Some also say that Francis IV repeatedly assured Menotti that he would save his life, but this has not been proven. After the uprising failed, the Duke, reassured, returned to Modena on March 9th, still taking Menotti prisoner with him.

Modena. Ciro Menotti organizes the uprising down to the smallest detail, seeking popular support and the approval of the nascent liberal circles that are proliferating across the peninsula.

Bologna. The city’s elite attempts a second revolt (the first in 1828) against the city’s misgovernment, with the support of the influential Bolognese notable Count Giuseppe Rangone.

The second act of the Italian Risorgimento begins (the first was 1820-21): in Modena, a young liberal businessman, Ciro Menotti, under the illusion of having Duke Francis IV on his side, organizes a daring conspiracy calling for the independence, unity, and freedom of Italy, with a monarch to be designated and Rome as its capital. The duke, who in reality is an ultra-reactionary, has Menotti arrested and then shot. But the episode sparks the uprising in Modena and other cities of the Po Valley, Marche, and Umbria.

Italy. These years were the heart of the Risorgimento and a period of general political growth, both moderate and democratic, both in Italy and Europe, of uncertainty about the future of capitalism and the bourgeoisie itself, of openness to different solutions, only one of which, the capitalist and bourgeois one, would emerge victorious.

Berlin. Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel dies of cholera.

Chicago, Illinois, is just a military outpost with a few fur traders, with wolves roaming the shacks at night. It has a total population of 12 families. In 30 years, the population will surpass 100,000 and become the world’s largest breadbasket, surpassing Odessa in Ukraine.

South America. A month before his death from tuberculosis, Bolivar wrote a final, disconsolate letter: “I have governed for twenty years and have drawn few certainties from it: 1) South America is ungovernable for us; 2) waging a revolution is like plowing the sea; 3) the only thing one can do in America is emigrate; 4) this country will inevitably pass from petty tyrant to petty tyrant, of every race and color; 5) when we have devoured ourselves, the Europeans will no longer even consider us worthy of conquest; 6) if it were ever to happen that a part of the world were to return to primitive chaos, it would be South America.”

French conquest of Algeria. It dragged on for several decades due to systematic and exhausting guerrilla warfare.

Revolutionary movements in Europe

Dr. Miles Compound Extract of Tomato, sold as a medicine and patented, is actually the first Ketch-Up

France. Reigns Louis-Philippe I, known as the Citizen King, of the Orleans dynasty.

French conquest of Algeria.

A revolt breaks out in Brussels that will lead to Belgium’s independence from the Netherlands.

Paris. A popular uprising overthrows the Bourbons and replaces them with a new ruler: Louis-Philippe of Orleans. This event sparks revolutionary movements throughout Europe and marks the end of the Restoration period.

Capture of Algiers by French troops; colonization begins

The game of squash was invented at Harrow School in England.

Abraham Lincoln’s family settles in Illinois. Lincoln has already lost his mother, worn out by the hardships and privations of frontier life. The strong and generous Abraham earns his living as a farmhand.

In the 1830s, British officer Henry Rawlinson was shown an enormous stele with inscriptions in cuneiform (rediscovered in 1618 by the Spanish ambassador to Persia), Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. He enlisted a Kurdish boy to hang the giant stele and copy the entire text, letter by letter, before sending it to Europe and deciphering it. For the first time, doors opened to lost kingdoms of millennia past: Sumerian bazaars, Assyrian kings, Babylonian bureaucrats. The local populations had always had this script at least three millennia old before their eyes, but no one, as far as we know, had ever bothered to try to decipher it. According to Yuval Noah Harari, the difference is one of approach: Western culture (which would spread throughout the world in the late 20th century) is based on the assumption of ignorance, which pushes toward conquest and discovery, while most previous cultures are based on the assumption of wisdom.

First fossil iguanodon skeletons discovered

Industrial Revolution: Richard Roberts’s Automatic Spinning Machine

Arizona, Mexico. Birth of Geronimo, future chief of the Chirikawa Apache tribe.

Hungarian Janos Bolyai rediscovers hyperbolic geometry, independently of Gauss.

Venezuela. Bolivar issues the Organic Decree of Dictatorship, establishing that there will be no democracy and no rule of law in South America under him.

The Dutch company Van Houten invented the screw press, which improved the chocolate-making process. The press crushed the fermented roasted beans, forcing the chocolate butter out. The remaining chocolate, free of its fats, was finely ground into a powder and drunk as hot chocolate. A further improvement came when they decided to remix the chocolate butter and add sugar. Many chocolatiers in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland experimented with this approach, but it was in England that Fry & Sons created the first chocolate bars in 1847. Thus, the chocolate industry was born.

Beryllium is synthesized for the first time. The mineral from which it is extracted had been discovered thirty years earlier by Vauquelin, who analyzed crushed beryllium crystals. The essential constituents are silica, or silicon dioxide, found in sand, quartz, and amethyst, and alumina, an aluminum oxide also found in rubies and sapphires. But there is also a new oxide, which once isolated is sweet to the taste, so Vauquelin calls it glucine, containing beryllium.

New York trapper Jedediah Smith travels across the Mohave Desert in Southern California; his journey across the Great West is punctuated by Indian attacks and an encounter with a grizzly bear, which leaves him scalped and an ear; he dies in 1831 at the age of 32, killed by the Comanche.

Abolition of the military order of the Janissaries, which had become too powerful, inconvenient, and invasive in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire.