September 9, 2002

September 9, 2002

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Beverly Hills, California. Moon landing conspiracy theorist Bart Sibrel chases 72-year-old astronaut Buzz Aldrin, along with a cameraman and a sound engineer, outside a hotel, accusing him of being a coward and a liar. Buzz, who had already been harassed by the same person several times before, responds by punching the robust young man in the face.

August 2002

August 2002

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Three Indian mathematicians: Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena, without presupposing the validity of the Riemann Hypothesis, demonstrate a test similar to the Miller-Rabin test, capable of establishing the primality of a number after a few checks.

2002

2002

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Stephen Wolfram, an English physicist and mathematician, publishes “A new kind of science” in which he describes a complex system called a cellular automaton, which can calculate like an algorithm and can even replace a computer.

August 2002

August 2002

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Tremendous floods in Europe cause more than 100 deaths and 20 billion euros in damages, with devastating floods also affecting India and China.

June 6, 2002

June 6, 2002

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Eastern Mediterranean event. A meteorite explodes in the atmosphere between Crete and Libya, threatening to trigger a nuclear conflict. The blast is 26 ktons. At the time of the event, tensions between Pakistan and India were at a peak over the Kashmir issue. If the meteorite had arrived just hours earlier, it would have exploded in the skies above both sides.

May 2002

May 2002

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Mars Odyssey’s Gamma Ray Spectrometer finds enormous amounts of water ice just 30-60cm below the Martian surface; enough to fill Lake Michigan at least twice.

2002

2002

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The Space Shuttle missions add the S0, P1, and S1 modules to the International Space Station.

2002

2002

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NASA launches the Aqua satellite to study Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and life at all electromagnetic frequencies.

May 28, 2002

May 28, 2002

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At Pratica di Mare, the extension of part of NATO to include Russia was signed. This was perhaps the highest point in relations between Russia and NATO, a situation that would not be repeated in the following two decades. The Pratica di Mare agreement also provided for the creation of the NATO-Russia Council, a permanent assembly of officials focused on security and cooperation issues, which would remain in place for decades (though it would lose its central role). The following year, in the wake of this initial collaboration, the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security was signed, a first mutual commitment to refrain from threats and the use of force. It included, for example, the promise to “jointly build a lasting and inclusive peace in the Euro-Atlantic area based on the principles of democracy and cooperative security.”

May 24, 2002

May 24, 2002

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Moscow Treaty between the USA and Russia for the reduction of nuclear warheads from 6000 to 1600-2200 and for cooperation in the fight against terrorism, particularly against NBC threats

2002

2002

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Geobiologist John Parkes examines mud samples taken from great depths on the ocean floor east of Newfoundland. The living prokaryotes found divide at a rate of once a century. Each organism could be several million years old.

2002

2002

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few months after the euro entered circulation, Freek Sujver and Andres Mejerink of Utrecht University in the Netherlands irradiated some banknotes with ultraviolet light and recorded the color bands they emitted. The red light they saw was due to europium ions, a rare earth, bonded to acetone; the green to europium with strontium, gallium, and sulfur; and the blue to europium that had reacted with aluminum and barium oxides. Europium is the most reactive of the rare earths, so much so that it must be preserved in oil to prevent it from catching fire (but it is harmless when bound as in the compounds in banknotes). The EU has never confirmed or denied the presence of europium in banknotes.

2002

2002

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United States: After hundreds of cases of pedophilia by Catholic priests, a reform has been passed imposing zero tolerance on the American Catholic Church for priests who abuse children, and mandatory reporting to the authorities. This reform, unfortunately, will remain limited to the United States.

2002

2002

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The Chinese-British couple Chan Hong-Mo and Tsou Sheung Tsun find a way to predict the 17 parameters of the Standard Model, which otherwise should simply be taken from experimental observation, by calculating 14 of them; the Standard Model is of the SU(3)xSU(2)xU1/Z6 type, i.e. 3quark-colors x 2electroweak x 1e.m. / 6quark-flavors

March 31, 2002

March 31, 2002

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Israeli tanks and troops invade the autonomous Palestinian territories and isolate Arafat in his building in Ramallah for 5 weeks; a bloody battle takes place in Jenin with hundreds of deaths, mostly Palestinians.

2002

2002

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United States. LIGO, a two-unit gravitational wave detector, one in Washington State and one in Louisiana, is ready to take its first data. Kip Thorne of Caltech and Rainer Weiss of MIT are coordinated by Caltech’s capable manager Barry Barish. Virgo, in Italy, entirely supported by France and Italy alone, will reach this stage in June 2003. (The United Kingdom and Germany have joined the American project.)

March 2002

March 2002

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Far-right politician Pim Fortuyn wins local elections in Rotterdam, goes on to have a brilliant political career, but is later assassinated by an Islamic extremist.

2002

2002

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The allure of conspiracy theories and conspiracy theories is framed as one of the ways people explain the reality of certain events, attributing meaning to a fragmented and chaotic world characterized by uncertainty, and thus reducing anxiety. Two relevant studies in this regard are Graumann & Moscovici, 1987, and Wexler & Havers, 2002.

2002

2002

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NASA’s Grace satellite, DLR, studies the gravitational field as it relates to the melting of glaciers and the dynamics of the ice-covered surface.

January 1, 2002

January 1, 2002

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The Euro comes into force in 12 states of the European Union: more than 300 million citizens (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Finland, Austria, Ireland)

2001

2001

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NASA-CNES’s Jason satellite, manufactured by Thales Alenia, studies sea level in correlation with glacier dynamics. It will be the first of a series of Jason missions.

December 2001 – September 2004

December 2001 – September 2004

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Israel. A series of 23 bombings on Israeli buses by Palestinian terrorists resulted in a total of 236 deaths. During the same period, traffic deaths in Israel remained higher than those from terrorist attacks. Our System 1 (automatic and intuitive) risk perception, as well explained by psychologist Daniel Kahneman, tends to exaggerate the significance of these acts, to the terrorists’ advantage.

December 17, 2001

December 17, 2001

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The Tora Bora area in Afghanistan also falls into the hands of the Northern Alliance and American special forces; in just over two months of military operations, there are around a hundred American victims; in the following 4 years the peacekeeping forces will lose around another hundred soldiers.

December 11, 2001

December 11, 2001

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China joins the WTO (World Trade Organization) by invitation. This is perhaps the final act of what some have called the postmodern empire of the United States, using evocative neologisms such as “empire by invitation” (precisely), “consensual hegemony,” or “liberal leviathan.” In exchange, the members of this “empire” enjoy the stability and security of trade, guaranteed not only by the WTO but also by American control and dominance of the seas.

November 25, 2001

November 25, 2001

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Konduz in Afghanistan is taken by the Mujahideen; in Mazar-I-Sharif, a revolt by non-Afghan Taliban prisoners is repressed by the intervention of American C-130s and BlackHawks: hundreds dead.

October 23, 2001

October 23, 2001

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Apple launches the iPod. Steve Jobs’s new idea is initially met with skepticism, especially because of its price ($399), but it quickly gains popularity, transforming the market itself.

October 30, 2001

October 30, 2001

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The Ukrainian government, under Western pressure, completed the destruction or handed over to Russia the Soviet nuclear weapons still stationed on its territory and destroyed its nuclear-capable bombers. Had it not done so, would Russia have invaded Ukraine first in 2014 and then again in 2022? At the time, the Soviet arsenal in Ukrainian hands was the third largest in the world. In exchange, Ukraine received security guarantees from the United States, Great Britain, and Russia. The memorandum by which Ukraine surrendered its nuclear weapons was signed in Budapest in 1994 (The Budapest Memorandum). The memorandum, signed in the Fatherland Hall of the Budapest Congress Center in the presence of, among others, US Ambassador Donald M. Blinken, prohibited Russia, the United States, and the United Kingdom from threatening or using military force or economic coercion against Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, “except in self-defense or otherwise in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.” Following further agreements and the memorandum, between 1993 and 1996, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine renounced their nuclear weapons.

October 14, 2001

October 14, 2001

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Vladimir Putin, to facilitate the American military operation in Afghanistan aimed at neutralizing Al-Qaeda, opens his airspace to the American Air Force and uses his influence over Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan to grant the Americans their military bases.

October 3, 2001

October 3, 2001

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Following the presentation by the United States of evidence of the involvement of Bin Laden and the Al Qaeda network in the September 11 attacks, Article 5 of NATO was triggered, which provides for the mobilization of all member countries; this is the first time since the Atlantic Alliance was founded.

end of September 2001

end of September 2001

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The U.S. Senate votes 98-0 and the House 420-1 to give the president the authority to “use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons” responsible for the September 11 attacks.

September 22, 2001

September 22, 2001

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The American probe Deep Space 1 passed close to the comet 19P/Borrelly at just 16 km/s, thus managing to take sharper and more detailed photos than those of Halley taken by Giotto (which passed at a good 68 km/s!)

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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ISS: The routine was broken, for example, on September 11, 2001, when the crew could clearly see smoke rising from Lower Manhattan. That same day, Mission Control in Houston had to move to a bunker for security reasons, and control was handed over to Moscow.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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4:31 PM Italian time: NEADS personnel receive the rules of engagement: shoot down the hijacked jets. But it’s too late for all the attacks: the last one, American Airlines Flight 93, crashed in Pennsylvania twenty-eight minutes earlier.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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4:07 PM Italian time: NEADS personnel are finally notified that a Boeing (American Airlines Flight 93) with 38 passengers and seven crew on board has been hijacked. However, they are unaware that it has already crashed in Pennsylvania.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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4:03:11 PM Italian time: A Boeing 73 (American Airlines Flight 93) with 38 passengers and seven crew members on board crashes in Pennsylvania after passengers fought against the hijackers; it was possibly destined for Congress or the White House.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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16:02:23. Flight UA93. From the black box: a hijacker shouts in Arabic: “Take it down! Take it down!”. Forty-eight seconds later, the plane crashes inverted, at an angle of impact of 50 degrees, into the soft grassy backfill of the former open-pit mine in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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3:28 PM Italian time: Terrorists kill a flight attendant aboard American Airlines Flight 93; her screams are captured on a voice recorder recovered by the FBI. From this moment on, several passengers (at least five) contact their families and friends and are updated on the New York crash. Five phone calls express the passengers’ intention to rebel.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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3:03 PM Italian time: A Boeing 767 (United Airlines Flight 175) with 56 passengers and nine crew members on board crashes into the South Tower between the 78th and 84th floors. Only four employees below the 84th floor die. Fewer than twenty people from the area above the impact site manage to find the only intact stairway and escape; the other six hundred remain trapped and die in the collapse.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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2:46 PM Italian time (8:48 AM local time): A Boeing 767 (American Airlines Flight 11) with 81 passengers and 11 crew members on board crashes into the 92nd floor of the North Tower. All employees below the 92nd floor are saved. Everyone above the impact point, over six hundred people, has no chance as all the stairwells have been severed, and will perish in the collapse.

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001

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Attacks on the two World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon with four hijacked planes: approximately 50,000 employees in the two towers, plus visitors; 2,749 people died from 430 companies in 28 countries; 343 firefighters were killed; 157 people were aboard the two planes in the WTC, 64 in the Pentagon, and 44 in Pennsylvania. The energy released by the explosions at the World Trade Center and the resulting 60-minute fire was equivalent to 1,000 tons or 200 conventionally charged Cruise ships. Nothing will ever be the same again.

2001

2001

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Jimmy Wales, creator of Wikipedia, and his wife become parents. Their daughter is named Ada, in honor of Ada Lovelace.

September 2001

September 2001

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Wikipedia already has 10,000 articles. Created in January 2001 by Jimmy Wales of Huntsville, Alabama, the application is based on Nupedia, written for him by Larry Sanger starting in 1999. But it didn’t mature until the two discovered Ward Cunningham’s WikiWikiWeb, web pages that users could edit by clicking directly on the page. The union of these ideas gave birth to a revolutionary innovation: an online encyclopedia that is a triumph of open-ware, shareware, and freeware, which have been a fundamental component of the Internet’s soul. Incredibly, the forces of reason, the “good guys,” triumph, and the encyclopedia adds value to its content every year thanks to voluntary and free peer-to-peer collaboration.

August 22, 2001

August 22, 2001

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French intelligence, questioned by American intelligence agencies, responded that Zacarias Moussaoui was linked to a group of Chechen rebels. British intelligence agencies, however, responded only on September 13th, after the attacks had taken place, with the key finding that Moussaoui had been trained in Al Qaeda camps in Afghanistan. MI-6’s delay proved fatal.

August 16, 2001

August 16, 2001

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Zacarias Moussaoui, assigned by Al Qaeda to carry out the September 11 attacks, is arrested by the FBI following a tip-off from a flight instructor who was suspicious of Moussaoui’s insistence on learning to fly a 747 despite his lack of basic experience.

August 8, 2001

August 8, 2001

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Launch of the American Genesis probe with the aim of collecting solar wind material using ultrapure wafers of gold, sapphire, silicon, diamond (carbon) and returning it to Earth in the summer of 2004

August 4, 2001

August 4, 2001

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The last of the 20 9/11 hijackers arrives in the US: Saudi Mohammed al-Kahtani. He landed in Orlando, but immigration officials refused to let him pass because he had a one-way ticket, didn’t speak English, and couldn’t explain what he was doing in the United States. He wasn’t replaced by Al Qaeda, and Flight 93, the one that crashed in Pennsylvania, had only four attackers, not five like the other three hijacked flights.